Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015 / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING : Hierdie proefskrif is ’n ondersoek na die wyse waarvolgens Duitse jeugboekskrywers die koloniale periode in Afrika uitbeeld. Duitse avontuurliteratuur speel dikwels af in die koloniale periode in Afrika. Motiewe in die avontuurroman stem egter nie altyd ooreen met die historiese konteks en geografiese ruimtes nie. Dit skep die indruk dat so ’n verhaal tyd- en ruimteloos is en dat die historiese en geografiese konteks bloot die afstand tussen Afrika en Europa beklemtoon. In die lig van die feit dat Afrika en sy historiese konteks dikwels as eksotiese agtergrond dien, bespreek die studie die problematiek rondom die manier waarvolgens skrywers die koloniale periode in die avontuurliteratuur ontleed. Vervolgens word die vraag gestel tot watter mate die uitbeelding van Afrika sedert 1945 verander het. Die wyse waarop die koloniale periode in Afrika in Duitse jeugliteratuur uitgebeeld word, behoort dus ondersoek te word binne die konteks van die tradisionele avontuurliteratuur. Deurdat die studie gesentreer is rondom die avontuurliteratuur voor 1945 en avontuurboeke na 1945, stel die dissertasie ondersoek in tot watter mate jeugboeke en hulle uitbeelding van die koloniale periode verander het en in hoeverre die tradisionele avontuurliteratuur aan hierdie boeke ontleen is. In hierdie proefskrif word avontuurverhale en avontuurlike jeugverhale wat tydens die koloniale periode in Afrika afspeel, vervolgens ontleed. Die studie fokus op vier periodes: Eerstens word tradisionele avontuurstories en motiewe wat ’n belangrike rol speel in die uitbeelding van Afrika, geïdentifiseer. Die volgende tekste word ontleed: C.Falkenhorst se Der Baumtöter (1894), Gustav Frenssen se Peter Moors Fahrt nach Südwest (1906), Josef S. Viera se Bana Sikukuu (1924) en Gust in der Klemme (1933), Max Mezger se Aufruhr auf Madagaskar (1930) en Rolf Italiaander se Wüstenfüchse (1934). Tweedens ondersoek die studie die rol wat avontuurmotiewe – inisiasie, weerstand en verowering – speel in jeugboeke wat in die Federale Republiek van Duitsland gepubliseer is. Die volgende tekste word onder die loep geneem: Kurt Lütgen se ...die Katzen von Sansibar zählen (1962), Rolf Italiaander se Mubange, der Junge aus dem Urwald (1957), Herbert Kaufmann se Der Teufel tanzt im Ju-Ju-Busch en sy historiese roman Des Königs Krokodil (1959). Derdens ondersoek die studie watter rol avontuurmotiewe – die edel barbaar (edle Wilde), antiheld en die tweegeveg – speel in jeugboeke wat in die Duitse Demokratiese Republiek gepubliseer is. Die volgende tekste word analiseer: Ferdinand May se roman Sturm über Südwest-Afrika (1962) en Götz R. Richter se Savvytrilogie (1955 – 1963) en Die Löwen kommen (1969). Laastens stel die studie die vraag tot watter mate die kontemporêre avontuurliteratuur – soos Hermann Schultz se sendingroman Auf den Strom (1998) ’n nuwe ontwikkeling toon wat van die tradisionele avontuurliteratuur van die 19de en 20ste eeu afwyk. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT : This dissertation investigates how the African colonial period is portrayed in German youth literature. German adventure literature is often set in the African colonial period. However, motifs in the adventure novel do not always correspond with historical themes and geographical spaces. This gives the impression that such novels stand outside of time and space and that the historical and geographical context merely emphasize the distance between Africa and Europe. In light of the fact that Africa and its historical context are often reduced to an exotic backdrop, questions are raised about the way authors examine the colonial period in the adventure literature and how the portrayal of Africa has changed since 1945. The question how the African colonial period is portrayed in German youth literature is therefore examined within the context of the traditional adventure literature. Reflecting on adventure literature before 1945 on the one hand and adventure stories after 1945 on the other, this study examines to what extent youth books and their portrayal of the colonial period have changed and how these books relate back to the traditional adventure literature. For this purpose, adventure stories and adventurous youth stories and –novels that are set in the colonial period in Africa are analysed and the study focuses on four periods: Firstly, traditional adventure stories and motifs that play an important role in the portrayal of Africa are identified. The following are analysed: C. Falkenhorst’s Der Baumtöter (1894), Gustav Frenssen’s Peter Moors Fahrt nach Südwest (1906), Josef S. Viera’s Bana Sikukuu (1924) and Gust in der Klemme (1933), Max Mezger’s Aufruhr auf Madagaskar (1930) and Rolf Italiaander’s Wüstenfüchse (1934). Secondly, the dissertation investigates what role adventure motifs – initiation, resistance and conquest – play in the youth literature of the Federal Republic of Germany. The following are analysed: Kurt Lütgen’s …die Katzen von Sansibar zählen (1962), Rolf Italiaander’s Mubange, der Junge aus dem Urwald (1957), Herbert Kaufmann’s Der Teufel tanzt im Ju-Ju-Busch and his historical novel Des Königs Krokodil (1959). Thirdly, the study examines adventure motifs – noble savage (edle Wilde), anti-hero and the duel – in the literature published in the German Democratic Republic. These are Ferdinand May’s novel Sturm über Südwest-Afrika (1962) and Götz R. Richter’s Savvy-Trilogie (1955-1963) and Die Löwen kommen (1969). Lastly, the dissertation poses the question to what extent the contemporary adventure literature – like Hermann Schulz’ missionary novel Auf dem Strom (1998) – shows a new development which deviates from the traditional adventure literature of the 19th and 20th century.

Plusieurs auteurs (Nadon, 2007; Tauveron, 2005; Routman, 2010) ont mis de l’avant des propositions didactiques pour enseigner l’écriture de façon optimale à partir de la littérature de jeunesse, notamment en amenant les élèves à s’inspirer du style d’un auteur. Puisque la littérature de jeunesse est encore peu employée pour induire des situations d’écriture au primaire (Montésinos-Gelet et Morin, 2007), cette recherche présente un dispositif novateur, soit l’écriture à la manière d’un auteur qui consiste à placer l’élève dans une situation d’appropriation-observation d’une oeuvre littéraire dans le but d’en ressortir ses caractéristiques et de l’imiter (Geist, 2005 et Tauveron, 2002). Selon Olness (2007), l’exposition à une littérature de jeunesse de qualité est essentielle pour permettre aux élèves d’apprendre une variété de styles et d’éléments littéraires. Cette recherche a pour but de décrire dix séquences d’écriture à la manière d’un auteur conçues par l’enseignante-chercheuse et d’identifier les impacts de celles-ci, auprès des élèves, sur leurs habiletés en production écrite, de compréhension en lecture et sur leur motivation à l’écriture. Cette recherche a été réalisée pendant une période de 5 mois auprès de 18 élèves d’une classe de 2e année du primaire. Il ressort de cette recherche que les élèves ont grandement développé leur capacité à analyser et imiter les caractéristiques d’un texte source et qu’ils ont transféré ces apprentissages au-delà du contexte de notre recherche. Par la pratique fréquente et le modelage, ils ont assimilés les six traits de l’écriture et ont manifesté un intérêt grandissant envers la littérature de jeunesse. / Many authors (Nadon, 2007; Tauveron, 2005; Routman, 2010) made suggestions to teach writing in an optimal way by using youth literature to get the students to study an author’s style as an inspiration. Since youth literature is still today not much used in the classrooms (Montésinos-Gelet et Morin, 2007), this research presents an innovative learning activity: writing in the style of an author. It is the stylistic imitation of a text (Tauveron, 2002) in order to observe «the way in which the language is used» (Geist, 2005, p.38). According to Olness (2007), the exposure to a high quality youth literature is essential to learning a variety of writing styles and literacy devices. This research is intended to describe ten activities of writing in the style of an author designed by the teacher researcher and to identify the impacts on the students regarding their writing skills, their reading comprehension and their motivation in writing production. This research was carried out during a 5 months period with a group of 18 grade two elementary students. The results of this research show that the students greatly developed their capacity to analyze and imitate the characteristics of the text studied and that they transferred these skills beyond our research. With a frequent practice and modeling, they learned the six traits of writing and they showed a growing interest regarding youth literature.

Le tournant des XXe et XXIe siècles coïncide avec l’essor de la littérature fantasy, héritière de nombreuses formes littéraires et cinématographiques. Plusieurs œuvres de ce corpus récent procèdent au renouvellement des paramètres conventionnels de la fantasy. Pierre Bottero prend part à cet effort par le truchement de la figure singulière d’une femme, Ellana, appartenant à la guilde des marchombres, et dont la quête de liberté renvoie à la recherche de dépassement de l’auteur. Après l’écriture de La Quête d’Ewilan (2003) et Les Mondes d’Ewilan (2005), Bottero se détourne en effet de la tradition tolkiénienne et de la légende arthurienne afin de mettre au point Le Pacte des marchombres, une trilogie qui relate l’émancipation du personnage d’Ellana par sa pratique d’une écriture « poétique ». Le présent mémoire explore les potentialités de l’écriture fantasy qui se déploient au sein du récit Ellana (2006), premier volet de la dernière trilogie de Bottero. Ellana relève d’une pratique particulière de l’écriture transfictionnelle – le prequel – qui s’effectue à rebours. Bottero substitue à la figure de Merlin, mythe fondateur de ses premières trilogies, celle d’Ellana, qui en vient à jouer un rôle central au sein du cycle alavirien. Nous mettons en relief les principaux traits du genre fantasy dans le but d’identifier les topoï qu’Ellana reconduit ou transgresse. Parallèlement, nous procédons à l’étude de l’imaginaire bottérien dont la figure d’Ellana est tributaire. En faisant de la protagoniste une figure mythique, l’auteur construit l’image d’un féminin à la fois sauvage et gracieux que rien n’empêche de vivre indépendamment des hommes. / Fantasy literature, heiress of many literary and cinematographic forms, has developed rapidly at the turn of the XXth and XXIst centuries. In this recent corpus, several works concur to the renewal of the conventional parameters of fantasy. Pierre Bottero takes part in this joint action through a singular feminine figure, Ellana, who belongs to the marchombre guild, and whose freedom quest refers to the author’s goal to dispel the commonplaces of fantasy genre. Indeed, after the writing of La Quête d’Ewilan (2003) and Les Mondes d’Ewilan (2005), Bottero moves away from tolkienian tradition and arthurian legend in order to create Le Pacte des marchombres, a trilogy relating the emancipation of Ellana’s figure by the way of a “poetical” writing practice. This thesis searches for fantasy writing’s potentialities that are observable in the book Ellana (2006), first volume of Bottero’s final trilogy. Ellana comes under a particular transfictional writing practice – the prequel – that is done back to front. While the first trilogies of Bottero are based on Merlin’s myth, the author changes the focus to Ellana’s figure who plays a pivotal role in the alavirian cycle. We highlight the main features of the fantasy genre with the aim to identify the topoï that Ellana renews or infringes. At the same time, we set about studying the botterian imaginary that Ellana’s figure is dependent on. By turning the protagonist into a mythical figure, the author builds the image of a wild yet graceful feminine that nothing prevents from living apart from men.

Por meio deste trabalho, inserido na área de Estudos Comparados de Literaturas de Língua Portuguesa, objetivou-se estudar o modo como a Literatura para Juventude representa a passagem da adolescência para a idade adulta, tendo em vista a contribuição que os textos literários podem prestar para o processo de formação da subjetividade dos jovens, seja de modo realístico ou simbólico. Em termos de referencial teórico, trabalhou-se com o pensamento de diversos estudiosos da Psicologia do Desenvolvimento, tanto daqueles cujos trabalhos ativeram-se à investigação do ego, quanto dos que foram além e professaram teorias a respeito do self e do processo de individuação. No sentido de demonstrar a validade do mito do herói como estrutura narrativa simbólica do adultescer, empreendeu-se estudo comparativo de O relógio do mundo, do autor brasileiro Lino de Albergaria, com Aventuras de João Sem Medo: panfleto mágico em forma de romance, de José Gomes Ferreira, obra clássica da Literatura Portuguesa. Por meio da análise dos textos, construídos com base nas invariantes do conto maravilhoso, procurou-se demonstrar que, do ponto de vista da natureza psíquica, a conquista da maturidade é processo universal e atemporal, porém, o modo desta expressar-se no mundo está diretamente ligado com a cultura de cada lugar e época. / Placed within the field of Comparative Studies on Literature Written in Portuguese, this work has studied how youth literature can represent the passage from adolescence to adulthood, considering the contribution that literary texts may give to the formative process of a youths subjectivity, be it through realism or symbolism. Regarding its theoretical background, the research relies on the ideas of several authors from the field of Developmental Psychology, both those whose works concentrated on investigating the ego, and those who took a further step towards theorizing on the self and the individuation process. For the purpose of demonstrating how the myth of the hero serves as narrative structure to the process of adulting, a comparative study has been undertaken between O relógio do mundo, by the Brazilian author Lino de Albergaria, and Aventuras de João Sem Medo: panfleto mágico em forma de romance, a classic work from Portuguese literature by José Gomes Ferreira. Such works, built upon invariable elements of the marvelous structure, reveal that reaching maturity, in terms of its psychic nature, is a universal and timeless process, nonetheless, the way it is expressed in the world is directly connected to the culture of each specific time and place.

Anthologies composed for adolescent readers are rare in both Afrikaans and Dutch. These anthologies are published at quite lengthy intervals, because they are post-publications in which already published volumes are absorbed. These anthologies are, however, to an increasing extent the medium by which readers become aware of poetry and are also introduced to different poets. For that reason it can be concluded that anthologies inform poetic taste. The empathy and love towards poetry experienced by young children in both languages are gradually replaced by an apathetic attitude towards poems and even an antipathetic attitude in general during adolescence. The first reaction to poetry is usually emotional and this indicates the way for further intellectual development. When selecting poems for the adolescent reader, the different developmental aspects affecting the adolescent and his identity development must be taken into consideration. The needs of the adolescent reader must be kept in mind. Needs in reading develop as a result of general needs that should be satisfied in the first place. Should this be the case, the need for reading would develop. In this study different theoretical points of view, namely reader-response criticism, developmental psychology, general needs and reading-related needs are used to determine the representation of identity in poems. Specific theories of poetry are used as instruments in text studies and analyses with regard to representation of identity in anthologies for adolescents. Poems in Versreise (Vermaak et al.) and Met gekleurde billen zou her gelukkiger leven zijn (Van Coillie) are analysed focusing on the representation of time and space, speaker and perspective, atmosphere and metaphorical language. For the purposes of this study analyses were conducted to evaluate and interpret the representation of identity in the texts of both anthologies. The differences and similarities between the Afrikaans and Dutch poetry texts for the adolescent had to be identified. The differences were used to determine which type of text would support the Afrikaans identity, the Dutch identity or the Flemish identity. The similarities, on the other hand, were used to determine the type of text that would not appeal to the Afrikaans, Dutch or Flemish adolescents only, but to adolescents in general. In this study method-pluralism is scientifically unavoidable. Different methods were systematically combined to support the specific methods of approach. The research was done in accordance with four methods: a synopsis of existing and appropriate theory of literature and forming of theory with regard to relevant concepts and terms; the analyses of texts in two anthologies; a summary of critical opinions stated in different reviews as well as surveys and interviews based on consultations via e-mail with the different role players, i.e. the anthology composers, illustrators and publishers. / Thesis (MA (Afrikaans en Nederlands))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Plusieurs auteurs (Nadon, 2007; Tauveron, 2005; Routman, 2010) ont mis de l’avant des propositions didactiques pour enseigner l’écriture de façon optimale à partir de la littérature de jeunesse, notamment en amenant les élèves à s’inspirer du style d’un auteur. Puisque la littérature de jeunesse est encore peu employée pour induire des situations d’écriture au primaire (Montésinos-Gelet et Morin, 2007), cette recherche présente un dispositif novateur, soit l’écriture à la manière d’un auteur qui consiste à placer l’élève dans une situation d’appropriation-observation d’une oeuvre littéraire dans le but d’en ressortir ses caractéristiques et de l’imiter (Geist, 2005 et Tauveron, 2002). Selon Olness (2007), l’exposition à une littérature de jeunesse de qualité est essentielle pour permettre aux élèves d’apprendre une variété de styles et d’éléments littéraires. Cette recherche a pour but de décrire dix séquences d’écriture à la manière d’un auteur conçues par l’enseignante-chercheuse et d’identifier les impacts de celles-ci, auprès des élèves, sur leurs habiletés en production écrite, de compréhension en lecture et sur leur motivation à l’écriture. Cette recherche a été réalisée pendant une période de 5 mois auprès de 18 élèves d’une classe de 2e année du primaire. Il ressort de cette recherche que les élèves ont grandement développé leur capacité à analyser et imiter les caractéristiques d’un texte source et qu’ils ont transféré ces apprentissages au-delà du contexte de notre recherche. Par la pratique fréquente et le modelage, ils ont assimilés les six traits de l’écriture et ont manifesté un intérêt grandissant envers la littérature de jeunesse. / Many authors (Nadon, 2007; Tauveron, 2005; Routman, 2010) made suggestions to teach writing in an optimal way by using youth literature to get the students to study an author’s style as an inspiration. Since youth literature is still today not much used in the classrooms (Montésinos-Gelet et Morin, 2007), this research presents an innovative learning activity: writing in the style of an author. It is the stylistic imitation of a text (Tauveron, 2002) in order to observe «the way in which the language is used» (Geist, 2005, p.38). According to Olness (2007), the exposure to a high quality youth literature is essential to learning a variety of writing styles and literacy devices. This research is intended to describe ten activities of writing in the style of an author designed by the teacher researcher and to identify the impacts on the students regarding their writing skills, their reading comprehension and their motivation in writing production. This research was carried out during a 5 months period with a group of 18 grade two elementary students. The results of this research show that the students greatly developed their capacity to analyze and imitate the characteristics of the text studied and that they transferred these skills beyond our research. With a frequent practice and modeling, they learned the six traits of writing and they showed a growing interest regarding youth literature.

Anthologies composed for adolescent readers are rare in both Afrikaans and Dutch. These anthologies are published at quite lengthy intervals, because they are post-publications in which already published volumes are absorbed. These anthologies are, however, to an increasing extent the medium by which readers become aware of poetry and are also introduced to different poets. For that reason it can be concluded that anthologies inform poetic taste. The empathy and love towards poetry experienced by young children in both languages are gradually replaced by an apathetic attitude towards poems and even an antipathetic attitude in general during adolescence. The first reaction to poetry is usually emotional and this indicates the way for further intellectual development. When selecting poems for the adolescent reader, the different developmental aspects affecting the adolescent and his identity development must be taken into consideration. The needs of the adolescent reader must be kept in mind. Needs in reading develop as a result of general needs that should be satisfied in the first place. Should this be the case, the need for reading would develop. In this study different theoretical points of view, namely reader-response criticism, developmental psychology, general needs and reading-related needs are used to determine the representation of identity in poems. Specific theories of poetry are used as instruments in text studies and analyses with regard to representation of identity in anthologies for adolescents. Poems in Versreise (Vermaak et al.) and Met gekleurde billen zou her gelukkiger leven zijn (Van Coillie) are analysed focusing on the representation of time and space, speaker and perspective, atmosphere and metaphorical language. For the purposes of this study analyses were conducted to evaluate and interpret the representation of identity in the texts of both anthologies. The differences and similarities between the Afrikaans and Dutch poetry texts for the adolescent had to be identified. The differences were used to determine which type of text would support the Afrikaans identity, the Dutch identity or the Flemish identity. The similarities, on the other hand, were used to determine the type of text that would not appeal to the Afrikaans, Dutch or Flemish adolescents only, but to adolescents in general. In this study method-pluralism is scientifically unavoidable. Different methods were systematically combined to support the specific methods of approach. The research was done in accordance with four methods: a synopsis of existing and appropriate theory of literature and forming of theory with regard to relevant concepts and terms; the analyses of texts in two anthologies; a summary of critical opinions stated in different reviews as well as surveys and interviews based on consultations via e-mail with the different role players, i.e. the anthology composers, illustrators and publishers. / Thesis (MA (Afrikaans en Nederlands))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

This dissertation considers the contextualising in African settings of three themes addressed in youth literature of the Baptist International Publications Services (IPS). It utilises a critical methodology developed from Kraft's (1979) ten principles of communication to analyse the efforts to contextualise the themes of salvation, the Christian family and witchcraft. Chapter one discusses contextualisation and presents a critical methodology based on Kraft's ( 1979) principles of communication. Chapter two is an historical background study of the International Publications Services. Chapters three, four and five use the critical methodology developed in chapter one to examine the themes of salvation, the Christian family and witchcraft respectively, as found in IPS youth literature. Chapter six is an analysis and conclusion of the study with suggestions for further research. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / M.Th.

Syftet med detta arbete har varit att undersöka tre av Sveriges största bokförlag och hur deras utgivning har sett ut när det kommer till mångfald av hudfärg, sexualitet och olika typer av sjukdomar inom ungdomslitteraturen. Till syftet fanns det två frågor som skulle besvaras: Hur har utgivningen av ungdomsböcker (12 år och uppåt) hos tre stora bokförlag sett ut under 2015 när det kommer till mångfald? Hur ser mångfalden ut hos huvudkaraktärerna ut i de utgivna böckerna? För att nå syftet med arbetet användes både kvalitativ och kvantitativ undersökning, vilket medförde att det blev två typer av undersöningar, dels en undersökning kring mångfalden hos huvudkaraktärerna, men även en statistisk undersökning där resultatet visade att mångfalden inte var så stor bland huvudkaraktärerna som man kanske skulle vilja att den var. Resultatet av undersökningen visar att det finns en bit kvar innan mångfald är något normalt, men det är en liten bit på väg. / The purpose of this paper has been to look at the publishing done at three of Swedens biggest publishing houses, and how this publishing has looked in terms of adversity, such as skin color, sexuality and different types of illnesses and disabilities in youth literature. There where two questions that needed to be answered and they where: How has the publishing of youth books (age 12 and up) been during 2015 with these three big publishing houses, when it comes to adversity? How has adversity been portrayed in the main characters of the published books? To reach the purpose of this paper it was important to use both qualitative and quantitative research, which lead to it being two different types of research, one which looked at the adversity with the main characters, and one which became a statistical one that showed the lack of adversity amongst the main characters. The results of the research showed that there is still quite a way to go before youth literature has the kind of adversity that todays society needs.

Por meio deste trabalho, inserido na área de Estudos Comparados de Literaturas de Língua Portuguesa, objetivou-se estudar o modo como a Literatura para Juventude representa a passagem da adolescência para a idade adulta, tendo em vista a contribuição que os textos literários podem prestar para o processo de formação da subjetividade dos jovens, seja de modo realístico ou simbólico. Em termos de referencial teórico, trabalhou-se com o pensamento de diversos estudiosos da Psicologia do Desenvolvimento, tanto daqueles cujos trabalhos ativeram-se à investigação do ego, quanto dos que foram além e professaram teorias a respeito do self e do processo de individuação. No sentido de demonstrar a validade do mito do herói como estrutura narrativa simbólica do adultescer, empreendeu-se estudo comparativo de O relógio do mundo, do autor brasileiro Lino de Albergaria, com Aventuras de João Sem Medo: panfleto mágico em forma de romance, de José Gomes Ferreira, obra clássica da Literatura Portuguesa. Por meio da análise dos textos, construídos com base nas invariantes do conto maravilhoso, procurou-se demonstrar que, do ponto de vista da natureza psíquica, a conquista da maturidade é processo universal e atemporal, porém, o modo desta expressar-se no mundo está diretamente ligado com a cultura de cada lugar e época. / Placed within the field of Comparative Studies on Literature Written in Portuguese, this work has studied how youth literature can represent the passage from adolescence to adulthood, considering the contribution that literary texts may give to the formative process of a youths subjectivity, be it through realism or symbolism. Regarding its theoretical background, the research relies on the ideas of several authors from the field of Developmental Psychology, both those whose works concentrated on investigating the ego, and those who took a further step towards theorizing on the self and the individuation process. For the purpose of demonstrating how the myth of the hero serves as narrative structure to the process of adulting, a comparative study has been undertaken between O relógio do mundo, by the Brazilian author Lino de Albergaria, and Aventuras de João Sem Medo: panfleto mágico em forma de romance, a classic work from Portuguese literature by José Gomes Ferreira. Such works, built upon invariable elements of the marvelous structure, reveal that reaching maturity, in terms of its psychic nature, is a universal and timeless process, nonetheless, the way it is expressed in the world is directly connected to the culture of each specific time and place.