Past research has demonstrated that there are numerous medical and psychological consequences when a woman with an eating disorder becomes pregnant. There has been a paucity of research, however, examining the attitudes towards pregnancy of women with body image issues/eating disorders and how these attitudes subsequently affect intentions to become pregnant. The present study examines intentions to become pregnant among a sample of women ranging in level of body image concerns using the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) as a framework (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Two hundred and forty-two females from an introductory psychology class completed a questionnaire, including the Eating Disorder Inventory (Garner, 1991) and specific scales targeting the components of the TRA developed for the present study. As expected, all TRA precursors to intentions were positively correlated with intentions to become pregnant, while contrary to predictions, body image was not correlated with intentions. In partial support of the TRA, a multiple regression analysis revealed that, for all participants, the subjective norm of pregnancy and perceived benefits of pregnancy were predictive of intentions to become pregnant. Perceived costs of pregnancy, however, evidenced no ability to predict intentions to become pregnant. Although results failed to support the prediction that those with high body image concerns would indicate a lower intention to become pregnant, significant differences among those with high versus low body image concerns did emerge. Specifically, participants with high body image concerns reported greater perceived costs of pregnancy as well as a greater likelihood of engaging in weight control behaviours during pregnancy. Implications, as well as practical applications of these findings are discussed.

Self-compassion has recently been introduced to Western psychology literature and is defined as a kind, understanding, and nonjudgmental toward oneself (Neff, 2003a). While self-compassion has been conceptualized as a construct that is important to ones overall sense of self, it might also be relevant to more specific self-attitudes, including ones attitude toward the body. Body-related attitudes have received much attention from sport and exercise psychology researchers in kinesiology and it was anticipated that body self-compassion would be relevant to women who exercise, as women often exercise for body-related reasons. The purpose of this study was to explore the meaning of body self-compassion for young adult women who exercise and have experienced a change in their attitude toward their body over time; and to discover the essential structure of the womens experiences. <p>Five women between the ages of 23 and 28 years participated in this study. The women identified themselves as Caucasian and middle-class, were university students, and indicated that they exercised at least four times a week. Each woman participated in an individual interview in which she was asked to describe two instances where she experienced body self-compassion. The womens interviews were analyzed using an empirical phenomenology method (Giorgi, 1985; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003) to identify the components of the womens stories that were essential to their experience of body self-compassion. A follow-up focus group discussion provided the women with the opportunity to offer feedback on the essential structures. Four essential structures emerged from these interviews: appreciating ones unique body, taking ownership of ones body, engaging in less social comparison, and body self-compassion as a dynamic process. A facilitating structure, the importance of others, also emerged. The findings of this study are generally consistent with Neffs (2003a) conceptualization of self-compassion as they reflect Neffs overall description of self-compassion without merely replicating the three components of self-compassion: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. <p>The findings of this study provide support for the exploration of more specific domains of self-compassion, such as the body. This study also makes a significant contribution to the body image literature, which has been criticized for being pathology-oriented and for focusing mainly on appearance-related attitudes (Blood, 2005; Grogan, 2006). This study explored a positive body attitude and highlighted the womens attitudes toward their physical capabilities in addition to their appearance. Further research is needed to develop the body self-compassion construct by exploring the generalizability of the essential structures that emerged in this study to broader populations.

Research continues to suggest that young women experience body image concerns; nevertheless, the majority of this body image research has focused on white women, and the experiences of young Aboriginal women have typically been overlooked. When research has included Aboriginal women, it has generally been quantitative in nature (e.g., Gittelsohn et al., 1996; Marchessault, 2004; Story et al., 1995) and has highlighted body dissatisfaction that is equal to and even greater than that experienced by white women. Despite the alarming statistics suggesting that body image concerns are common among Aboriginal women, few researchers have engaged young Aboriginal women in qualitative research projects that seek to highlight their unique experiences. My previous research with young Aboriginal women (i.e., Fleming et al., 2006; McHugh & Kowalski, in press) are some of the first Canadian studies to have an exclusive focus on Aboriginal womens body image experiences. This research suggested that young Aboriginal womens body image experiences may not be as negative as previous quantitative research has suggested, but highlighted the need to work with young women to develop strategies for positively managing body image experiences. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to engage in a collaborative, school-based participatory action research (PAR) project in partnership with a local high school to provide young women, primarily young Aboriginal women, with an opportunity to manage their body image experiences in an effective manner.<p> Students, teachers, and staff of Nutana Collegiate participated in this project, which took place over a 10-month period from September 2006 to June 2007. All Nutana school members were welcomed to participate and many took part in the various action initiatives that were developed. A group of seven young Aboriginal women formed a core group of participants who were primarily responsible for the development and implementation of most action initiatives. A five phase PAR model, which was based on the work of Stringer and Genat (2004), was proposed as the methodological framework for this project. However, given the emergent and dynamic nature of PAR processes, and the unique features of the school community, the manner in which the project actually unfolded was quite different from the original plan. This project ultimately had two phases, the Relationship Building Phase and the Action Phase.<p> In an effort to develop relationships with school community members, during the Relationship Building phase I engaged in the three general processes of: familiarization, making connections, and giving back to the school. My commitment to these processes supported my initial goal to develop trusting relationships with community members, which subsequently formed a strong foundation for the development of effective and successful action initiatives. Eight action initiatives, which were represented by three themes, were developed and implemented as part of the Action phase. The three themes were: (1) Promoting Positive Body Image Experiences, (2) Self-Expression, and (3) Creating Awareness.<p> The development and implementation of action at various levels (i.e., individual, school, provincial, and national) was the most significant outcome of this research. The success and relevance of the various action initiatives was demonstrated by the words of the participants, the overall support of various school members, and the commitment of the core group to the goals of this PAR project. Although there were methodological challenges and considerations that needed to be navigated throughout this PAR project, findings from this research suggest that universities and local high schools can and should work together to develop school-based body image programs for young Aboriginal women. As well, and maybe most importantly, this research highlights the strength of using PAR methodologies when engaging young Aboriginal women in body image research.

The current study examined the subjective and physiological reactivity to body image stimuli among females engaging in a social comparison task. Study I was conducted to select images of thin and average size models and neutral objects for Study II. For Study II, fifty-six female undergraduate students had their skin conductance and startle reflex responses recorded while comparing themselves to images featuring thin models, average size models, and neutral objects. Following the visual presentation, participants rated every image using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) rating scale. Analysis from the SAM ratings scale revealed a significant picture type effect for arousal, dominance, and body satisfaction, indicating that participants reported greater arousal, more body dissatisfaction, and less control after viewing images of thin models than after viewing images of normal models and neutral objects. With regards to the psychophysiological data, results indicated that startle reflex responses were inhibited during the presentation of thin models in comparison to average size models and neutral objects. Moreover, startle reflex responses were inhibited for average size models in comparison to neutral objects. The finding that startle reactivity to model images was inhibited with respect to neutral images suggests pictures of models were processed affectively as pleasant, positive stimuli. The finding that startle reactivity to thin models was inhibited with respect to average size models suggests that thin model images elicited differentially greater positive affect than average size models. For skin conductance, analysis revealed no significant picture type effect. Taken together, the results of this study highlight the influence of social comparison processes on affectivity reactivity to body image. Future research directions are discussed.

Social comparison theory offers a useful conceptual framework to understand how mainstream American sociocultural values of appearance may shape the development of body image disturbance and eating disorders. Some experimental research demonstrates that women report significantly greater increases in negative affect and body image disturbance and decreases in self-esteem after viewing thin models than after viewing inanimate objects, normal-weight models, and overweight women. The main goal of this study was to investigate whether the effects of viewing thin models are influenced by the ethnicity of the observer and/or the ethnic and racial similarity of the model to the observer. In addition, the study tested the extent to which social comparison tendency, trait appearance evaluation, ethnic identity, and racial identity may moderate these effects. In study 1, women rated the race, attractiveness, and thinness of a group of ethnically diverse models. Study 2 assessed affect, self-esteem, and body image in Euro-American (n = 105), African-American (n = 91), and Latina (n = 111) women before and after viewing ethnically self-similar models, self-different models, or control images. Results indicated that ethnic similarity between model and participants influenced affect such that increased social comparison tendency in Latina participants predicted increased negative affect after viewing Latina models. Additionally, the type of media images viewed and proposed moderators influenced affect and body image. As predicted, positive appearance evaluation was more strongly associated with positive feelings about one’s weight after viewing models and, in African-American and Latina women, increased idealization of Whiteness was associated with decreased positive feelings regarding one’s weight after viewing White models. Unexpectedly, increased social comparison tendency was associated with increased positive affect after viewing African-American models whereas increased social comparison tendency was associated with less positive affect after viewing Latina models. Finally, independent of media exposure, African-American women reported higher appearance-based self-esteem and body image than Euro-American and Latina women and increased social comparison tendency, decreased positive appearance evaluation, decreased ethnic identity, and increased racial identity idealizing Whiteness were each associated with undesirable levels of self-esteem and body image. Clinical implications and directions for future research are provided.

Although there have been only a few etiological studies that have examined the development and maintenance of body image in males, research fairly consistently reports that exposure and presumed comparison to images of ideal male bodies increases body dissatisfaction. Social comparison provides individuals with a mechanism by which to evaluate their body appearance to those around them. When individuals compare their bodies to those of others, they are attempting to gauge their standing or status relative to those around them, the results of which have inherent status implications. There is increasing empirical evidence that suggests perceived increases in status result in increased testosterone levels, whereas testosterone decreases when status is perceived as having been diminished. Thus, the core of the present study: can the process of comparing the appearance of one’s body to that of others affect the testosterone levels, body satisfaction, and mood of males? To examine the above research questions, a two-part study was designed. A pilot study was conducted with 117 male undergraduates primarily to examine the psychometrics of measures to be used in the main study. The measures appeared psychometrically sound and were thus used in the main study. In the main study, 129 male undergraduates were exposed to photographs of one of three male body types (i.e., lean/muscular, skinny, average) to determine whether or not exposure to the different body types differentially affected participants’ testosterone levels, body satisfaction, and mood. Results indicate that testosterone levels decreased over the course of the experiment in each of the three groups; however, the body type to which participants were exposed did not differentially affect participants’ testosterone levels. Body dissatisfaction was greater among participants who viewed lean/muscular bodies than those who viewed average bodies. Lastly, mood was not differentially affected by viewing different types of male bodies. Implications and possible explanations for these results are discussed.

Thesis (M.A.)--Ohio State University, 2008. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 28-33).

Thesis (M.A.)--West Virginia University, 2002. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains iii, 33 p. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 22-27).

Thesis (M.A.)--Western Kentucky University, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 33-39).

Thesis (M.S.)--Eastern Illinois University, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 92-98).