Unlike most prairie nesting ducks (Anas spp.), the North American population of northern pintails (A. acuta, hereafter pintails) has failed to respond as expected to improved wetland conditions on the U.S. and Canadian prairies during the mid to late 1990s. My primary objectives were to test the ecological trap hypothesis on a landscape level by examining pintail nest site selection and nest success in a highly agricultural environment in southern Saskatchewan. I also used radiotelemetry to estimate renesting and breeding season survival rates of female pintails; two parameters that are important in productivity and life cycle models. Most (51%) pintail nests were found in crop stubble and generally pintails nested in habitats in proportion to their availability on the landscape. In contrast, most (82%) mallard nests were located in edge and grassland habitats. Mallards nested in habitats with dense cover in greater proportion to their availability and avoided crop stubble. Nest success estimates in crop stubble were lower (<1-4% vs. 6-37%) than the surrounding habitats with greater cover. Nest success estimates in crop stubble were abysmal largely due to high rates of nest predation. Only 20-33% of nests in crop stubble failed due to spring cultivation. For 1998, 1999, and 2000, overall renesting rates for females trapped throughout the nesting season were 50%, 71%, and 41%, but were 61%, 90% and 62% when only first nesting females were included. Renesting propensity declined seasonally, but at different rates among years likely due to variation in wetland abundance. Most (58%) females renested, but few (37%) initiated multiple renests. Survival rate for my 75-day interval (April 30 14 July) was 0.81 ± 0.05. Cause-specific mortality rates were greater for avian predators (0.14 ± 0.04) than other sources of mortality. The pintails high propensity to nest in crop stubble where nest success is low coupled with lower renesting and breeding season survival rates than mallards may partially explain their meager response to improved wetland conditions. Management programs to facilitate pintail recovery should be targeted at increasing nest success by providing safe nesting habitat.

Age ratio estimates obtained annually by the Cooperative Waterfowl Parts Collection Survey (PCS) serve as important estimates of annual waterfowl recruitment. To determine if age and sex ratios are biased due to repeat sampling of hunters across years, I examined PCS data collected from 1991-2000. Mean seasonal harvest increased with number of consecutive years hunters responded to the PCS. Proportions of juveniles in the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) harvest and harvest of all species combined decreased with increasing seasonal harvest level. Proportions of males in the harvest increased with increasing harvest level. Proportions of juveniles in the harvest of hunters responding to the PCS 3 and 4 consecutive years were slightly lower than proportions in the harvest of hunters responding only once or twice. Proportion of males in the mallard harvest increased with number of years hunters remained in the PCS. Although large sample sizes produced statistically significant effects (P < 0.05) of seasonal harvest and repeat sampling, actual differences in predicted proportions were quite small. My results suggest that age and sex ratio estimates remain relatively unaffected by repeat sampling in the PCS.

This dissertation seeks to explore the effects of abiotic factors [nitrogen (N), sodium chloride (NaCl), and ultraviolet (UV) light], biotic factor [acetylsalicylic acid (ASA)], and plant hormones [benzyl adenine (BA) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)] on growth, morphology, and secondary metabolite, camptothecin (CPT, an anti-cancer compound) accumulation in Camptotheca acuminata. Five experiments were conducted with C. acuminata seedlings in a hydroponic system with commercial media and fluorescent lights and at 22-26 °C to investigate the effects of these five factors on height, weight, leaf number, leaf length, root to shoot ratio (RSR), specific leaf weight (SLW), CPT concentrations in leaves and/or roots, and final CPT yield in leaves which were collected in nondestructive harvestings. N deficiency decreased height, weight, leaf number, leaf length, and leaf chlorophyll concentration in comparison with N supplementation, but increased RSR, SLW, and CPT concentrations in leaves and roots. However, the CPT yield did not increase. NaCl addition reduced height, weight, leaf number, and leaf length, but increased SLW and CPT concentrations in leaves and roots. However, the CPT yield decreased. UV light short-term exposure had no effect on height, weight, leaf number, leaf length, RSR, and SLW, but increased leaf CPT concentration and yield after three weeks. ASA addition reduced plant height, weight, and leaf length, but increased SLW and leaf CPT concentration, and decreased CPT yield. BA application decreased height, but increased RSR and leaf CPT concentration, and had no effect on CPT yield. NAA application decreased height, weight, leaf number, leaf length, SLW, and CPT yield, but increased RSR, and had no effect on leaf CPT concentration. In conclusion, abiotic and biotic stresses reduced the growth and affected the morphology of C. acuminata seedlings in a hydroponic system. Abiotic stresses and biotic stress increased CPT concentration, but did not increase CPT yield (expect UV). Cytokinin up-regulated CPT concentration but had no effect on CPT yield, whereas auxin did not regulate CPT concentration but decreased CPT yield. A negative relationship between plant growth and CPT concentration existed under the treatments with N, NaCl, or ASA.

Due to its high market value, Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) has long been regarded as a promising species for aquaculture. Although pompano exhibit several favorable traits for culture, previous studies have indicated that fish larger than 200 g exhibit poor growth. This study was conducted to determine the effects of different feeding strategies on production characteristics of pompano raised in closed recirculating systems. Results of Experiment 1 indicated that mean weight of fish (initial mean weight, 17 g) fed a fixed ration at two and six feedings per day was greater than that of fish fed only once per day. Weight gain of fish fed twice per day was greater than that of fish fed once per day. Results of Experiment 2 revealed that growth was not greatly affected by the stocking densities evaluated (1.3 and 2.6 kg/m³). However, mean weight and weight gain of fish (initial mean weight, 74 g) fed to satiation were greater than that of fish fed a fixed ration and reared at the low density. Results of Experiment 3 demonstrated that mean weight and weight gain of fish (initial mean weight, 215 g) reared to market size while receiving four feedings to apparent satiation per day was greater than that of fish receiving two feedings to apparent satiation per day. Whole body composition analysis revealed exceedingly high lipid levels of fish throughout the study. Market size pompano had dressed carcass yields greater than 70% and fillet yields greater than 45%. Feeding strategies used in this study had little, if any effects on feed efficiencies and specific growth rates. Survival of fish in each experiment was greater than 90%. Growth of pompano in this study was not restricted to 200 g. Pompano achieved market size after approximately 4.5 months and reached an average weight of 712 g after approximately 8.5 months. Our results show that market-size pompano can be grown from juveniles in closed recirculating systems under the conditions used in this study.

I examined the accuracy of using data collected by temperature sensing dummy eggs (hollow and switch) to determine female nest attendance in waterfowl. I monitored 3 northern pintails (Anas acuta) and 6 mallards (A. platyrhynchos) using closed circuit video recording. Differences in the time spent on the nest for an 8-hour recording period between dummy eggs and camera were similar between type (hollow and switch eggs, P = 0.93), species (P = 0.07), and date (P = 0.42). My results show that temperature data from hollow and switch eggs are an effective and accurate method to monitor female nest attendance for prairie-nesting waterfowl. I investigated the effects of nest site cover and nest site temperatures on the patterns of female nest attendance in pintails and mallards. I monitored nest attendance of 82 pintails (1094 days) and 94 mallards (761 days) in North Dakota in 2000-2001 using temperature sensing dummy eggs in nest bowls. Time spent on the nest per day (constancy) was lower for pintails (81.6 ± 0.31%) than mallards (83.2 ± 0.46%; P = 0.03), and pintails took more recesses per day (2.64 ± 1.07) than mallards (1.77 ± 1.07, P < 0.001). For early nesting pintails and mallards, constancy decreased with increasing nest site cover (lateral concealment) and increased slightly for late nesting females (P < 0.01). However, experimentally adding or removing nest site cover at mallard nests did not affect constancy (P = 0.13). For both species, females spent more time on the nest late in incubation when it rained than when it did not rain (P = 0.02). Pintails spread their incubation recesses more evenly over the daylight period than mallards, which concentrated their recesses in the evening (P < 0.001). Maintaining a higher constancy resulted in a shorter incubation period for pintails (P < 0.01) but not for mallards (P = 0.59). My results suggest that other factors such as body size and condition, or trade-offs between female condition and the risk of predation may influence female nest attendance in pintails and mallards to a greater extent than nest site cover.

The red snapper Lutjanus campechanus is an economically valuable sport and commercial fishery, and because of its high market value and limited commercial harvest, red snapper have received considerable attention as a candidate for marine aquaculture and stock enhancement programs. The goal of this thesis was to improve hatchery techniques for artificial spawning of red snapper Lutjanus campechanus. The objectives were to: 1) refine protocols for collecting, handling, transport, and holding of mature red snapper broodstock for induced spawning; 2) establish methods for strip-spawning of red snapper to optimize egg quality; 3) develop procedures for the collection, storage, and use of refrigerated and cryopreserved sperm of red snapper and gray snapper, and 4) evaluate the overall effects of gamete and larval quality on rearing success. The techniques developed were practical methods that hatchery managers can use to collect high-quality broodstock, to preserve sperm, and to collect and incubate eggs. Red snapper broodstock (N = 101; 1.0 to 3.8 kg) were collected during the 2000 and 2001 spawning seasons (May to August) off coastal Louisiana by hook and line sampling. The reproductive condition of females was evaluated through samples of oocytes collected by intraovarian biopsy. Females with oocytes ranging in size from 350 to 550 µm were considered good candidates for hormone induced spawning. Female snapper were induced to ovulate with injections of human chorionic gonadotropin. Females were monitored for oocyte maturation and were stripped after ovulation. In a series of 2 x 2 trials, refrigerated and cryopreserved sperm with motilities above 80% were compared to evaluate fertilization and hatching success. Eggs were incubated in plastic bags (200 eggs per L) and fertilization was assessed as embryos developed through 8-cell, neurulation, and hatch. Fertilization and hatch rates ranged from 7 to 99% and were highly correlated (r2 = 0.92). Refrigerated sperm yielded fertilization rates of 52 ± 23% (mean ± SD) and cryopreserved sperm yielded fertilization rates of 44 ± 22%. Use of refrigerated and cryopreserved sperm improved efficiency within the hatchery and each were effective for the fertilization of eggs and production of larvae.

While advocates of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) contend that this decentralized approach to natural resource management has higher potential for the distribution of conservation and social benefits throughout civil society than conventional protected area approaches, there is limited empirical research to confirm it, especially regarding goals and claims of gender empowerment. To assess the impact of CBNRM on women's empowerment, this research selected Kwandu Conservancy in Namibia's Caprivi Region for in-depth study, an area with a relatively long and nationally-praised experience with CBNRM. The research was organized around the following two questions: how do women residing in Kwandu Conservancy define empowerment; and how has women's empowerment changed as a result of CBNRM in Kwandu Conservancy? Given the range of CBNRM activities in the Conservancy, the research focused on the effects of income-generation activities, in part, because they have been emphasized in CBNRM as a mechanism for women's empowerment. The iterative, ethnographic methodology included participant observation, document review, 20 interviews with key informants, and 49 in-depth interviews with women residents in Kwandu Conservancy varied by household wealth, age, ethnicity, education, marital status, Conservancy involvement, religion, and 5 other characteristics over the course of 6 months. Results show that women residents talk of a female ideal in their culture as having the following characteristics, and translated from their language as a "real woman": 1) able to meet material needs by earning cash income from locally-respected livelihood activities, 2) educated, 3) hard-working, 4) engaged in nurturing relationships with other people, and 5) performing culturally-defined roles as a wife and mother. Kwandu Conservancy provided enhanced income-generation opportunities through four activities: cash-paid employment of five to seven women annually; harvesting and sales of grass, reeds, and Devil's Claw (<italic>Harpagophytum procumbens</italic>); sale of locally-produced crafts; and collection of household dividends from the Conservancy. This represents limited economic opportunity for women in Kwandu Conservancy but mixed capacity to achieve their own, locally-defined female ideal of being a "real woman". While the Conservancy's economic activities provided women opportunity to gain new income, skills, public-speaking training, and awareness of gender norms and alternatives, opportunities were limited by existing and persisting male-bias, relatively low monetary returns from dividends and craft sales, and the low overall number of economic opportunities provided relative to the Conservancy's population size. The research concludes that efforts to improve women's empowerment need to be built on women's own definitions and goals in a particular context. They should also directly address barriers in gender-based roles and responsibilities, particularly regarding economic participation, household and community-level decision-making, and women's control over their bodies. Gender-based norms continue to place women in roles of subservience and dependency, increasing women's risks for experiencing gender-based violence. Challenging cultural norms will be problematic in Kwandu Conservancy and likely in other CBNRM efforts because creating opportunities for women requires cultural and economic change on the part of men, and is likely to create resistance from within the community as well as resentment against the conservation organization. It also begs the question as to who besides nature conservancies need to implement and reinforce empowerment programs.

Throughout the developing world, countries face a number of issues regarding the health and welfare of their populations. One issue that stands out with critical and growing importance is the availability-and accessibility-of water. Across the Sahel, access to potable water for domestic use, as well as contaminant-free water for agricultural and animal husbandry purposes is of growing concern. This study evaluates Government of Senegal efforts at improving rural water access through public-private operation contracts to manage deep groundwater resources. In West Africa, Senegal currently counts itself among the few Sahelian countries having sufficient freshwater supplies to support its populations growing domestic and industrial needs, though this is threatened by global climate change, and the Sahels natural ecological variability. Surface water supplies the majority of urban areas in the country, while rural regions commonly draw water from groundwater systems. From 2002-2009, the Senegalese government, in cooperation with external partners, launched the Projet dOrganisation et de Gestion Villageoise (Village Organization and Management Project) which aimed to reduce poverty and improve quality-of-life at the village level. In 2007, the village of Tawa Fall received the technology necessary to access deep groundwater resources through this project. In a unique public-private system, the government of Senegal engaged Associations dUsagers de Forages (Drilling User Associations, ASUFOR) to manage operation and maintenance contracts for these boreholes. Proceeds from the sale of water is managed by ASUFOR associations, and used both for borehole maintenance and to further village development. This study explores the effectiveness of deep borehole wells at reducing womens workload, evaluating the wells effects on communities from the perspective of women as primary domestic water drawers and users. The study also examines the efficiency of the ASUFOR system at maintaining decentralized management of natural resources. It examines how Tawa Falls ASUFOR committee has used proceeds from the sale of groundwater to bring electricity to the village, and also explores how village women manage their household water needs through a combination of purchased, and well-drawn water. The data collection methods utilized include spot observation, site visits, semi-structured and unstructured interviews with key informants, and a survey of female heads of household to determine domestic water use patterns. The results suggest that, while deep borehole wells provide a fairly reliable source of water for villagers and reduce womens labor burden, the cost of water is often prohibitive, and the majority of residents continue to regularly use open wells in addition to public taps. This suggests that Senegals management of rural water systems is still at an emerging stage, and would benefit from increased financial investment to maintain continuous access and expand the existing rural water provision network.

The results of the ongoing study to monitor visitors use, and the shuttle experience in Glacier National Park demonstrate that use levels in the park have increased considerably. Thus, it was pertinent to evaluate to which extent the conditions on the trails are so undesirable or unexpected for visitors that they would usually employ coping responses to deal with those situations. This research was structured to provide a description of the salient setting attributes and personal factors associated with the identification of the detracting elements of the recreational experiences, and types of coping mechanisms usually used. The study reported here was implemented at four of the most popular trails in GNP: Avalanche Lake, The Loop, Sunrift Gorge, and the Highline trail. A total 765 on-site collected surveys were used for the analysis. Ordinary least squares regression was used to test whether situational and personal factors could predict detracting elements and coping responses. One-way analysis of variance was used to test whether the use of coping mechanisms varied by type of detractor, and by use level. From the overall sample, results indicated that 67% of the respondents experienced a lot of other hikers as the most common detracting element (48%), followed by non-natural sounds (42%) and overflights (32%). For hikers experiencing detracting elements, 80% would usually use a coping mechanism to reduce the negative effect of that kind of detractor. Hikers sampled employed different cognitive coping mechanisms. Rationalization and product shift would be used 49% and 47% respectively. Displacement, in the form of seasonal, time of the day, activity or location changes, was also a usual response considered for 47% of the hikers sampled. The results suggested that personal factors were more useful than situational factors to predict detracting elements, especially crowding. The regression models suggested that there is still much of the variance in the use of coping responses that needs to be explained by factors other than the ones used in this study. Furthermore, there was not enough evidence found to support differences in the use of coping responses by use levels and number of detractors. However, encounters with wildlife were found to have incidence in the use of cognitive coping responses.

There is longstanding conflict related to planning standards and guidelines (S & Gs) used by the U.S. Forest Service to guide and constrain National Forest System land management. The role these prescriptions have played in the past in forest management, and the role they ought to play in the future, is often disputed. However, the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) and the new 2012 NFMA planning regulations require S & Gs, so they must be included in forest plans in the future. The goal of this research was to provide a common understanding of how planning S & Gs were used in the past in order to provide recommendations for how standards, specifically, might be written and applied more effectively in the future. To understand the history and conflicts associated with S & Gs, I analyzed public comment letters from NFMA planning regulations, applicable case law, and background literature. Twenty-five forest plans, strategies and amendments were examined in order to create a typology of common standards and assess their use. This typology found three primary continuums of common standards: mandatory and discretionary, scale of application, and complexity. Several sub-categories are also described, including prioritization, threshold, process-based, management method, and mitigation. Fifteen interviews were conducted with USFS personnel, interest group representatives, and legal experts in order to supplement and validate findings. Findings reveal compelling reasons why the USFS should impose binding, enforceable standards upon itself, including bolstering legal accountability, political credibility, and organizational efficiency. Recommendations for writing standards, incorporating best available science, working within an adaptive management system, supporting recovery efforts for threatened and endangered species, and making use of suitability determinations and management area designations are also provided.