This qualitative study has examined the overall Norwegian contribution to international police reform missions (IPRMs) using a multiple case study design to compare three different missions where Noway has contributed relatively significantly over a period of time; the bilateral project in Serbia (JUNO); the multilateral UN mission to Liberia (UNIMIL); and finally the regional EU mission to Afghanistan (EUPOL). The case studies have subsequently been systematically compared through a narrative cross-case analysis where similarities and variations has been categorised into three stages; pre-mission, in-mission and post-mission, using analytical software for qualitative studies. Motives and goals for involvement were identified, subsequently set against the police officers actual experience in each mission, and their understanding of the overall picture in relation to their responsibilities. Substantial empirical research work was undertaken to inform the individual case study's including 99 open ended interviews, consisting of 36 Norwegian police officers (practioners), 21 co-operating partners in the missions and 42 experienced senoir officials working with IRPMs throughout the world. Also, oberservational fieldwork and study trpis to 11 countries were conducted, and a wide range of secondary data was reviewed to ensure reliability and validity throughout the thesis. The fidings suggest that there are severe impediments to achoeve a successful outcome of IPRMs, but that the responsibility cannot be attributed to one organisation or country alone. The experiences of Norwegian police officers deployed to different types of IPRMs paint a picture of an international arena torn between idealism and realism, one characterised by a pragmatic approach focused on action and quantity rather than development and quality. Because of a complete absence of overall doctrines and a system that is not sufficiently well grounded, IPRMs suffer from an absence of long-term strategies, goals, success criteria, and planning. Instead, goals are often vague and over-ambitious, demanding results that promote output rather thanoutcome, consequently at the risk of the individual police officer who operates in adverse operational working conditions. The findings reveals a system that currently fails to recognise the need for better and more extensive planning and preparation for the individual police officer pre-mission, that fails to acknowledge the role and professionalism of the police officers in-mission; and that fails to ensure proper debriefing and reintegration procedures for the police officer post-mission. International relations theory was used as a basis for the macro-level of this study, but no mid-range theory was found to inform the meso- and micro-level. Herein lies the original theoretical contribution to this field - it aims to inform the development of internationation police science, one that can substantiate a much needed future universal doctrine on international police reform missions.

Miscarriages of justice occur far more frequently than we dare to believe (Yant, 1991; Naughton, 2009) and quite simply, ruin people’s lives. Many of these injustices have been revealed and ultimately rectified as a result of work by journalists who have dedicated energy and resources to investigating and publicising them. However, the involvement of the media in this area appears to have diminished over time, leading campaigners to claim that prisoners protesting their innocence should not now place too much faith in the informal involvement of journalists in their cases (Allison, 2004, n.p.). Such claims are of particular concern in the light of recent criticism that the Criminal Cases Review Commission, the formal investigator of miscarriages of justice, is not ‘fit for purpose' (Woffinden, 2010; Laville, 2012). Using a triangulated research strategy which included interviews, questionnaires, and narrative analysis, this thesis examined the positive role of the media in miscarriages of justice cases in England and Wales (from the 1960s through to the present day); and determined how the media’s involvement in such cases had changed over time. The results indicated that the media’s major contribution to miscarriages of justice comes in the form of publicity and investigations. Of these, media investigations were found to bring about the biggest impact in a case, in terms of the journalist discovering fresh evidence which subsequently proves to be crucial at a prisoner’s appeal. However, a number of motivations and considerations were found to influence journalists’ decisions upon whether to get involved in miscarriages of justice and which cases to get involved in. These included moralistic motivations and profit-related considerations. Regarding those cases which are taken up by the media, there is a five-stage process (a model of journalistic involvement in miscarriages of justice) which journalists enter into. During this process journalists come up against a number of obstacles which determine whether they can continue with their involvement. But what makes a successful investigative journalist? Certain attributes may be particularly important in order to achieve success as a journalist in investigating miscarriages of justice, attributes which, the quantitative research strand of this thesis revealed, are similar to those required by criminal investigators. This strand of the thesis also revealed that successful investigators draw upon more qualities from ‘within the person’ than from ‘within the profession’ in order to achieve success. Journalists’ aims in telling stories about miscarriages of justice are numerous and although these stories share similarities with investigative stories in other genres, they also differ from them. This is particularly so in terms of their endings, as comparison of their structure with that of the fictional detective ‘Whodunit?’ story demonstrates, (i.e. there is no solution to the crime). It was also found that journalistic involvement in miscarriages has changed over time, from the 1960s, when there was little involvement, to the late 1980s/early 1990s which saw massive media interest in miscarriages. From the mid-90s however, a number of factors, especially increased commercial pressures, began to hamper journalists’ ability to get involved in, and particularly to investigate miscarriages, factors which persist today. Despite such issues, it is argued that some journalists will always remain ‘crusaders in the name of the public right to know’, viewing it as their professional duty to investigate and expose miscarriages of justice. This is fortunate, as until radical changes to the appellate system occur, many prisoners will still, it is argued, need them in the pursuit of freedom from injustice.

Vulnerable people, such as children and people with learning disabilities may have difficulties with comprehension when asked certain complex questions during interview at the police station or during cross-examination at court. One support measure, available through statute to vulnerable witnesses, but not defendants as yet, is the role of the intermediary. The intermediary was introduced through legislation to facilitate communication with the vulnerable witness but has more recently also been tasked, on occasion by judges, under common law, to facilitate communication with the vulnerable defendant. There has been no previous research on the role of intermediaries undertaking defendant cases and this thesis fills that gap. In this research, interviews have been conducted with six intermediaries to gain an insight into how they experienced this new role with defendants. The data has been analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Each participant’s insight has been individually analysed and valued in its own right. Additionally, the six interviews were subsequently examined to assess if there were any general emerging themes. It was found that three themes emerged. Firstly, and most significant, intermediaries appeared to be trying to make sense of their developing identities as professionals in the courtroom and this theme is conceptualised through Social Identity Complexity theory. Secondly, some intermediaries appeared to be minimising the offender’s alleged criminal behaviour and it was found that the theory of Cognitive Dissonance offers an explanation for this behaviour. Finally, attachment and detachment with the offender have been examined, as intermediaries working with defendants have been found to experience a sense of loss when the defendant is convicted and removed to the cells. Recommendations are made including the requirement for additional training for intermediaries to understand the underlying psychological processes and conflicts they may experience when working with defendant cases. This is a new contribution to knowledge in the literature about intermediaries.

This study contributes to the contemporary debate about external citizen oversight (ECO) of police by taking up the challenge of assessing the extent to which such oversight agencies or their procedures are associated with lower levels of police misconduct. More specifically, the research consists of a case study of the Police Inspectorate of Kosovo (PIK), an example of ‘holistic’ ECO - i.e. an agency that combines a reactive (complaint investigation) function with a proactive (policy recommendation) function. It is the first such evaluation of police governance and oversight in Kosovo, employing both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Importantly, it adds to a small but growing body of research into the perceptions of police officers about the impact of ECO on police conduct. It triangulates documentary evidence - including legislation, procedures, PIK reports and statistical data – with primary data obtained through a questionnaire survey of junior-ranked police officers and semi-structured interviews with senior-ranked. The findings reveal that the PIK meets the main criteria of ECO, as indicated in the literature. Although the documentary evidence fails to provide clear indications that PIK activity (or procedures) are associated with improved police conduct, the primary data offers evidence that there might be such a link. A significant proportion of over 500 questionnaire respondents expressed positive views about ECO, albeit also expressing positive views about police investigation of complaints. In conclusion, the study offers evidence of a link between ECO activity and improved policing conduct that warrants further investigation. It confirms the findings of other authors that future research into police perceptions ought to focus on fairness and process.

The findings of a longitudinal, qualitative investigation of educating and training Irish trainees in a competency development framework and the meanings of training, and education and integration of both are explored. Themes’ emerging from the analysis of in-depth interviews and surveys with police trainees, police and civilian teacher/trainers, police administrative and operational members suggests the induction programme for new entrants to the Irish police is not achieving its intended development for trainees. Police trainees, police personnel and police and civilian teacher/trainers have their own views on the quality of the induction programme which do not always match that of the police organisations leadership policies, directives or mission statement. The findings inform on ways in which the accelerated recruitment campaign between 2004 and 2008 impacts on the quality of the education and training programme, initiatives and have implications for a wide range of policing services.

This thesis centres on issues of policing accountability and oversight. It examines the extent to which the police oversight agencies in the United Kingdom and Ireland with the remit for investigating deaths involving the police have evolved and adapted their investigative practice and capacity to meet the positive obligation under Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) created by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) of conducting an effective investigation of any state caused death. It first examines the problem presented by deaths involving the police and considers a number of typologies of deaths involving the police. The thesis then examines the evolution and contextual operation of three police oversight agencies, the Office of the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland, the Independent Police Complaints Commission and the Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission. It then conducts a critical analysis of the evolution of the positive obligation under Article 2 of the ECHR and the development through European Court jurisprudence of the five standards of an effective investigation: independence, adequacy, timeliness, victim involvement and public scrutiny. The theory of Europeanization of Human Rights and the process by which European Court decisions impact upon domestic states is explored. An evaluation of the response to the Article 2 obligations by each of the oversight agencies from the perspective of those responsible for the investigation of deaths involving the police is conducted through qualitative interviews with senior investigating officers. The importance of the “political will” to conduct investigations as per the definition put forward by Luna and Walker has also been considered. Using Borzel and Risse’s definition of the degrees of domestic change caused by Europeanization the thesis concludes that the arrangements for policing oversight policies, processes and institutions have been “transformed” by the Article 2 obligations imposed by the ECtHR. It further concludes that the independence of oversight agencies is a complicated concept and is dependent on several interlinking variables that cannot be described or evaluated in simple linear terms. The performance and capacity of oversight agencies to meet the five standards is not constant and can be impacted upon by both internal and external factors. Oversight agencies can be seen to follow Herzog’s model of scandal and reform. The capacity of the oversight agencies to conduct investigations into deaths involving the police employing ‘high policing’ methods as defined by Brodeur is also explored. Finally, the research assesses whether in the viewpoint of the police oversight investigators the standards set by Europe are relevant, realistic and achievable in practice.

This thesis explores successive police reform agendas over the period 1979 – 2012 in terms of the relationship between political ideology, police reform and police occupational culture. The thesis addresses the interplay between ideologically driven police reform and the reception of reform agendas within the central mindset of policing. It examines the significance of political and economic drivers in police reform agendas and literature on police occupational culture, with emphasis upon change and reform and the response within the police. As a means of exploring the relationship between reform and police culture the thesis gathers data through empirical research based upon documentary analysis and semi-structured interviews. Research upon street and management cops (Reuss-Ianni 1983) and the analytical model of cultural knowledge and change outlined by Chan (1997), was used to analyse and present the research findings. The main conclusions concern how ideology in police reform agendas was received by police occupational culture. Utilising the theoretical frameworks of Reuss-Ianni and Chan, the thesis argues that the ideology in police reform agendas is received and assessed through cultural knowledge. This places into context documented features of police occupational culture such as the sense of mission, conservatism, resistance to change and the street – management divide. As a result, this thesis contributes to the understanding of police occupational culture through the prism of reform and the implications for practice, outlining how ideologically driven police reform agendas are received and interpreted through police occupational culture.

The purpose of this study was to focus on the classroom preferences of students completing a police Foundation Degree course (FdSc) at the University of Central Lancashire. A secondary factor under consideration was an attempt to identify the differences in student preferences based on seven factors (Affiliation, Teacher Support, Task Orientation, Personal Goal Attainment, Organisation and Clarity, Student Influence and Involvement) making use of The Adult Classroom Environment Scale (ACES) to measure the social environment of adult education classrooms. The scope of this study investigated over a three year period three first year cohort intakes undertaking the FdSc through the use of a non-random volunteer sampling technique to determine the study group. A non-experimental descriptive quantitative research methodology, specifically a longitudinal trend survey consisting of 85 first year students. Findings from the study show student affiliation, the extent students like and interact positively with each other, and involvement, the extent to which students are satisfied with the class and participate actively and attentively in activities as the highest factors for consideration within the classroom environment for students. The study revealed the importance of teacher support, how students experience feelings of support, and that care and mutual respect are valued. Classroom management and how students need a well organised learning environment through an understanding of the objectives of the class were also revealed. Conclusions reached suggest that a better understanding of student perceptions can be used to improve teaching approaches and to evaluate different teaching techniques for presenting material. The significance of the study is apparent as increasing numbers of Further and Higher education establishments seek to deliver police pre-employment training. This study contributes to existing literature by considered the role of human interactions in the classroom environment of police training, an area where few studies have been conducted into the dynamics which take place.

This thesis examines the evolution of the animal rights movement and its impact on the pharmaceutical research community. It explores the methods used by animal rights activists and the development of its tactics. It considers the approaches adopted by the research community and presents an analysis of their behaviours and processes applied. The research and analysis of the results is based on semi-structured interviews achieving saturation with 20 participants from within the community. The greatest challenge to this research has been gaining access to a closed practitioner community through the necessary development of specific networks and gatekeepers. This research has been the first to gain access to this community. Those engaged are drawn from universities, contract research organisations (CROs), equipment manufacturers, and strategic security advisers. The research identified organisations within this community as operating in three distinct ways in their responses to the animal rights movement. These have been defined as: passenger; pilot; and engineer. The findings highlight that the guidance available provided no specific instruction with regard to the threat presented by the animal rights movement. The data shows that the primary targets are CROs and Equipment Manufactures, who have generally acted in a reactive way, and are denominated as pilots. The university sector has generally received limited attention and security strategists have experienced no actual attacks. Both groups are considered ineffective in their approach and identified as passengers.

This thesis presents a series of studies that explore the creation of an autism friendly environment within the Criminal Justice System. The first study explored the perception and understanding of police officers regarding autism. It was found that although police officers have some knowledge of the traits of Autism Spectrum Disorder, they fail to accommodate for these when planning a witness or a suspect interview. Appropriate Adults support vulnerable suspects in custody and the second study found that Appropriate Adults also failed to apply what they know about autism to their work. However, the study revealed instances where the characteristics of autism can damage the progress of an interview. Hence, the study concluded that to be effective, Appropriate Adults must monitor behaviours which may arise as a result of internal characteristics. Study 3 examined how people from the higher end of the autism spectrum understand the current caution. It was found that people with autism performed comparably to those from the general population. Overall both populations where not very good at explaining the caution in full, and performed poorly when explaining its function. An alternative version of the caution was devised for study 4, however this had mixed results. It was useful to participants when they explained the caution one sentence at a time, and helped in the understanding of its function. However, there were damaging effects. People with autism performed poorly when explaining the sentence which informs that what is said can used as evidence. Study 5 attended to people from the higher end of the autism spectrum as witnesses. Results showed that the Mental Reinstatement of Context and Sketch plan Mental Reinstatement of Context both had a positive impact on the recall of information. Additionally the use of memory jogs, a colour search and an alphabet search helped people with autism to provide additional pieces of information, particularly relating to person descriptors.