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The increasing interdependence of economies and the recent economic crisis has considerably strengthened the importance of exporting. It is recognised as promoting the survivability of companies as they are better able to diversify risks and generate multiple income streams. Thus, investigation of the determinants of export performance has become particularly important. Marketing decision-making has been identified as one of the core drivers of firms success. It is a process under the direct control of managers where significant changes can be introduced to improve it, and by extension, the ability to achieve successful outcomes. However, little is known about how export marketing decisions are made and what key decision-making approaches managers rely on to drive their performance. A literature review that span multiple disciplines (e.g. strategic management, organisation studies, marketing) helped to disentangle two key decision-making approaches, namely planning and improvisation. This is the first study examining the impact of both of these simultaneously on a firm s export performance. While planning is considered to be a unidimensional construct, improvisation is comprised of three facets: spontaneity, creativity and action-orientation. Based on decision theory, this research was conducted in two phases. The literature review informed phase 1: a qualitative exploratory study among export managers in the UK. A conceptual model was then derived from the results and tested in phase 2 through quantitative analysis utilising data generated from 200 respondent companies via a self-reported online questionnaires and the application of structural equation modelling. The results indicated that export customer performance was negatively affected by planning and positively influenced by action-orientation, whilst export financial performance was found to benefit from planning. All decision-making approaches (planning, spontaneity, creativity and action-orientation) were found to be positively related to responsiveness to environmental changes. Using moderator analysis, important insights were uncovered into combining decision-making approaches. The export function was found to benefit from a combination of planning and action-orientation, whereas spontaneity and creativity while having separate positive effects are not well combined with planning, producing negative moderation effects.

The question how much internationalization is beneficial for emerging-market small and medium enterprises (EM SMEs) remains challenging to answer for both international business (IB) scholars and managers. We explore export strategies of first time exporters and focus on the scope of EM SMEs internationalization activities. We tackle the question whether more focused or more diversified internationalization through exporting is beneficial for EM SMEs. We examine the impact of foreign market (geographic) diversification, product diversification and export intensity on firm performance of an entire population of EM SMEs from an emerging east European market. In addition, we test whether a complex export strategy-an export strategy of simultaneous product- and geographic export diversification-is beneficial for EM SMEs. We use a panel population data of first time Slovenian exporters in the period 1994-2012. We find that diversified internationalization, both in terms of product and foreign market diversity, significantly improves productivity and sales performance for EM SMEs. Furthermore, EM SMEs with complex export strategies enjoy significantly improved productivity and sales performance. / Series: Working Papers / Institute for International Business

This paper reviews the long-term economic performance of Tanzania since independence using long-term series of key economic and social indicators constructed from a variety of sources. The disastrous export performance for most of the period under consideration can be attributed partly to domestic policy failures and partly to a hostile external environment. However inconsistent donor support to a highly aid dependent economy at times exacerbated the constraints imposed by persistent foreign exchange shortages. Greater stability in funding and a more flexible policy dialogue are needed. The extent to which a small and poor economy with a weak indigenous private sector can rely on foreign private investment to finance investment in the early stages of adjustment is questioned. Investment in human capital beyond primary school level is also needed if growth is to be sustained.

This study examines the influence of inward technology transfers and international entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) on the export performance of small and medium-sized firms (SMEs). IEO and innovation are frequently cited as critical antecedents of export activities. Highly entrepreneurial and innovative firms seek to capitalize on their unique intellectual property by penetrating a niche global market quickly. Extant research primarily focuses on technology innovators, in countries well known for their technological advances and support of technology based start-ups. However, SMEs that do not have a technological niche also internationalize. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in developing economies like Egypt, where horizontal flows of technology (the transfer of technology from one organization to another), especially from overseas companies, are more common than vertical transfers of technology (i.e., from researchers directly to organizations). The literature suggests that many SMEs, especially those in developing economies, rely on the horizontal inflow of technology to enhance their export potential. The hypothesis is that by importing technology, firms also develop an outward internationalization capability (OIC). A second hypothesis is that IEO contributes to creating such capability. The literature postulates that IEO is a dynamic capability that helps firms exploit and reconfigure their resources to pursue international opportunities. Thus, firms with a higher IEO are more likely to develop OIC than are their less entrepreneurially oriented counterparts. Also, firms with a higher IEO are more likely to be involved in inflow of technology processes than are their counterparts. Despite evidence of a link between innovation and export performance, there is a dearth of research examining how inward transfers of technology from other countries influence the development of capabilities and outward internationalization of firms. This research addresses this gap by using resource-based view of the firm, dynamic capabilities view, network theory, and the concept of entrepreneurial orientation, to develop an explanation of how inward transfers of foreign technology may influence the internationalization capability and export performance of firms. Hypotheses are tested in the context of horizontal transfers of foreign technology to SMEs located in Egypt. The research progressed in two stages. In the first stage, interviews with managers of firms having experience importing technology and with substantial export activity helped to identify and confirm relevant factors that comprise OIC. During the second stage, data on inflows of technology (IFT), IEO, OIC, and exports were collected from a sample of 214 SMEs by a survey. Research results identified capabilities that underlie the outward internationalization of SMEs, by developing an OIC scale. There are no measures for OIC in extant literature. Thus, this research contributes to the development of a valid and reliable measure of this construct. Findings support the hypothesis that IEO has a direct positive effect on export performance. The relationships between IEO and export performance is partially mediated by OIC. On the other hand, the relationship between inflows of technology and export performance is fully mediated by OIC, where this research found that IFT does not have a direct effect on export performance. The research results further suggest that the level of OIC development is mainly explained by IEO, but with some contribution from IFT. The research contributes to streams of literature in international business, international entrepreneurship and management of technology. In particular, it expands the understanding of linkages between inward internationalization (inward flow of technology) and outward internationalization (export activities). The linkage between inward and outward internationalization processes received limited attention in the literature, and such research is rarer still in the context of SMEs in developing economies. The research additionally investigates the influence of a 'firm's strategic orientation (IEO) on export performance. While IEO is suggested to have a direct effect on export performance, IEO is also suggested to be an antecedent of OIC, which in turn affects export performance. Studying the mediating effect of OIC contributes to clarifying the conflicting findings of previous studies that examined the impact of entrepreneurial behaviour on international performance. The results provide owners/managers of SMEs with guidance on how to lever technology transfers by building related capabilities. The research also provides SMEs with guidance on how to measure and assess their OIC, and understand how such capability can be built or enhanced. The results additionally clarify the role of a firm's strategic orientation (IEO) in the configuration of resources and the creation of capabilities. Finally, the research helps policy-makers structure export-support polices that explicitly take advantage of opportunities presented by technology imports.

This study examines the influence of inward technology transfers and international entrepreneurial orientation (IEO) on the export performance of small and medium-sized firms (SMEs). IEO and innovation are frequently cited as critical antecedents of export activities. Highly entrepreneurial and innovative firms seek to capitalize on their unique intellectual property by penetrating a niche global market quickly. Extant research primarily focuses on technology innovators, in countries well known for their technological advances and support of technology based start-ups. However, SMEs that do not have a technological niche also internationalize. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in developing economies like Egypt, where horizontal flows of technology (the transfer of technology from one organization to another), especially from overseas companies, are more common than vertical transfers of technology (i.e., from researchers directly to organizations). The literature suggests that many SMEs, especially those in developing economies, rely on the horizontal inflow of technology to enhance their export potential. The hypothesis is that by importing technology, firms also develop an outward internationalization capability (OIC). A second hypothesis is that IEO contributes to creating such capability. The literature postulates that IEO is a dynamic capability that helps firms exploit and reconfigure their resources to pursue international opportunities. Thus, firms with a higher IEO are more likely to develop OIC than are their less entrepreneurially oriented counterparts. Also, firms with a higher IEO are more likely to be involved in inflow of technology processes than are their counterparts. Despite evidence of a link between innovation and export performance, there is a dearth of research examining how inward transfers of technology from other countries influence the development of capabilities and outward internationalization of firms. This research addresses this gap by using resource-based view of the firm, dynamic capabilities view, network theory, and the concept of entrepreneurial orientation, to develop an explanation of how inward transfers of foreign technology may influence the internationalization capability and export performance of firms. Hypotheses are tested in the context of horizontal transfers of foreign technology to SMEs located in Egypt. The research progressed in two stages. In the first stage, interviews with managers of firms having experience importing technology and with substantial export activity helped to identify and confirm relevant factors that comprise OIC. During the second stage, data on inflows of technology (IFT), IEO, OIC, and exports were collected from a sample of 214 SMEs by a survey. Research results identified capabilities that underlie the outward internationalization of SMEs, by developing an OIC scale. There are no measures for OIC in extant literature. Thus, this research contributes to the development of a valid and reliable measure of this construct. Findings support the hypothesis that IEO has a direct positive effect on export performance. The relationships between IEO and export performance is partially mediated by OIC. On the other hand, the relationship between inflows of technology and export performance is fully mediated by OIC, where this research found that IFT does not have a direct effect on export performance. The research results further suggest that the level of OIC development is mainly explained by IEO, but with some contribution from IFT. The research contributes to streams of literature in international business, international entrepreneurship and management of technology. In particular, it expands the understanding of linkages between inward internationalization (inward flow of technology) and outward internationalization (export activities). The linkage between inward and outward internationalization processes received limited attention in the literature, and such research is rarer still in the context of SMEs in developing economies. The research additionally investigates the influence of a 'firm's strategic orientation (IEO) on export performance. While IEO is suggested to have a direct effect on export performance, IEO is also suggested to be an antecedent of OIC, which in turn affects export performance. Studying the mediating effect of OIC contributes to clarifying the conflicting findings of previous studies that examined the impact of entrepreneurial behaviour on international performance. The results provide owners/managers of SMEs with guidance on how to lever technology transfers by building related capabilities. The research also provides SMEs with guidance on how to measure and assess their OIC, and understand how such capability can be built or enhanced. The results additionally clarify the role of a firm's strategic orientation (IEO) in the configuration of resources and the creation of capabilities. Finally, the research helps policy-makers structure export-support polices that explicitly take advantage of opportunities presented by technology imports.

Increased globalisation of trade has led a growing number of firms to search beyond their traditional domestic markets. As a result, export-led growth has gained focus, particularly amongst industrialising nations, or so-called efficiencydriven economies, in search of economic growth. Policy prescriptions have generally proposed a weakening of the exchange rate as a means to stimulate exports; whilst an exchange rate appreciation would be detrimental to exports and encourage imports. Past research on this topic has been mixed.This research examines the impact of exchange rate on export performance in a sample of nine efficiency-driven economies for the period from 1990 to 2009. These economies, with floating exchange rate arrangements, include Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Peru, South Africa, Thailand and Turkey. Panel data models using a fixed-effects method have been applied in this research. The research finds that a weakening of the exchange rate does not necessarily improve export performance. To the contrary, export growth is associated with a stronger, relative exchange rate. The lag effect of exchange rate movement on export performance is slightly more pronounced, but remains statistically insignificant. / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / unrestricted

Yes / The importance of trade as an engine of growth is well established. Empirical literature shows that the growth impact of exports is much stronger when the export basket is vertically and horizontally diversified. This paper aims to assess the role of the real exchange rate in enhancing export supply and promoting export diversification in Ethiopia and Tanzania. The empirical results suggest that, while overvaluation is harmful to exports, undervaluation of the real exchange rate boosts export supply as well as export diversification. A high rate of growth in exports is associated with periods of undervalued currencies. A major share of the difference in export performance between the two countries can be explained by differences in real exchange rate policy. Tanzania has maintained an undervalued real exchange rate for a long time and as a result, performs better in terms of export supply and diversification. However, export expansion achieved through undervaluation raises the rate of inflation for Tanzania. Tanzania managed to maintain an undervalued real exchange rate through the accumulation of reserves and a high rate of inflation.

Yes / This paper examines the role of business groups (BGs) in the relationship between innovation and exports. In the light of the divergent theoretical predictions on the role of BGs, we develop hypotheses that are explicitly based on the institutional context of emerging economies. By analyzing the institutional pressures under which BGs shape their strategies and operations, we formulate hypotheses on the effect of BG affiliation on exports, and the impact of innovation on exports. Empirical results, based on a large sample of Chinese manufacturing firms during the period of 1998-2007, show that both innovation and BG affiliation have a positive effect on exports, although BG affiliation weakens the positive value of innovation to exports. These findings are robust in different specifications. This paper highlights the complex role played by BGs, which needs to be understood in the context of institutions.

Exporting is a critically important strategy for firms to grow, yet research in this area has tended to ignore how firms can leverage resource-based capabilities to improve export performance. Building on the resource-based view and institutional theory, the authors develop a novel perspective to explain how a firm can improve export performance by aligning its export channel with its level of market orientation capabilities, contingent on the institutional distance between home and export markets. Using a unique database of Chinese exporters, the authors find that exporters with strong market orientation capabilities prefer hierarchical export channels, while those with weak market orientation capabilities prefer hybrid channels. The analysis also indicates that the institutional distance between China and the export market moderates this relation. Moreover, the authors find that aligning export channel choice with firm-level market orientation capabilities and institutional distance yields better export performance. (authors' abstract)