Testing of eye tracking devices is done by humans looking at well defined stimuli. This way of testing eye trackers is not accurate enough because of human errors. The goal of this thesis is to design and construct reliable robotic eyes that can mimic the behaviour of human eyes. After a pre-study where human eyes, eye tracking and previous robotic eyes were studied, system requirements and specifications were formulated. Based on the re-quirements important design decisions were taken such as the use of RC servo motors, push rods, microcontrollers and a Raspberry Pi. Later the inverse kinematics of the movements and a saccade’s path planing were modelled. Additional mechanical de-sign features are rotation of the head and adjustment of the interpupillary distance. The robot is controlled using two types of application programming interfaces (APIs.) The first API is used to control the motors and the second API builds on top of the first API but is used to design paths of different eye movements between fixation points. All eye movement calculations are computed on the Raspberry Pi before the movements are communicated in real time to the microcontroller which directly performs the control signal. The robot was tested using the integrated lasers in the eyes and a video cam-era with slow motion capabilities to capture the projected laser dot on a wall. The properties tested are saccade, smooth pursuit, head rotation and eye tracking device compatibility. The results show high precision but not enough accuracy. The robot needs a few mechanical improvements such as removing the backlash in the rotat-ing joints on the eyes, decreasing the flexibility of some of the 3D printed parts and assuring symmetry in the design. The robot is a powerful testing platform capa-ble of performing all eye movement types with high-resolution control of both eyes independently through an API. / Eyetracking utrustning testas av människor som tittar på väldefinierade stimuli. Att testa eyetracking på det här sättet är inte tillräckligt noggrant på grund av mänskligt fel. Malet med detta examensarbete är att designa och bygga en pålitlig ögonrobot som kan härma beteendet hos mänskliga ögon. Efter en förstudie om mänskliga ögon, eyetracking och existerade robotögon formulerades system-krav och -specikationer. Baserat på dessa krav togs en del betydande designbeslut som att använda RC servomotorer, tryckstånger, mikrokontrollers och en Raspberry Pi. Senare modellerades den inverterade kinematiken av rörelserna och saccaders banor. Ytterligare mekaniska funktioner är rotation av huvudet och justering av avståndet mellan pupillerna. Roboten styrs med hjälp av två applikationsprogrammeringsgränssnitt (API). Det första API:et används för att styra motorerna och det andra API:et bygger på det första men används för att bygga rörelsevanor av olika ögonrörelser mellan fixationspunkter. Alla ögonrörelseberåkningar görs på Raspberry Pin innan rörelsen kommuniceras i realtid till mikrokontrollen som på direkten exekverar styrsignalen. Roboten testades med integrerade lasrar i ögonen och en kamera med slow motion funktionalitet för att fånga laser prickens projektion på en vägg. Funktioner som testades är saccader, smooth pursuit, huvudrotation och eyetracking kompatibilitet. Resultat visade en hög precision men inte tillräckligt hög noggrannhet. Roboten behöver några få mekaniska förbättringar som att få bort glappet i de roterande lederna på ögat, minska flexibiliteten i några av de 3D-utskrivna delarna och garantera symmetri i designen. Roboten är en kraftfull testplatform kapabel till att utföra alla typer av ögonrörelser med högupplöst kontroll av båda ögonen var för sig genom ett API.

The visual content represented on information displays used in training environments prescribe display attributes as brightness, color, contrast, and motion blur, but considerations regarding cognitive processes corresponding to these visual features require further attention in order to optimize the display for training applications. This dissertation describes an empirical study with which information display features, specifically color and motion blur reduction, were investigated to assess their impact in a training scenario involving visual search and threat detection. Presented in this document is a review of the theory and literature describing display technology, its applications to training, and how eye-tracking systems can be used to objectively measure cognitive activity. The experiment required participants to complete a threat identification task, while altering the displays settings beforehand, to assess the utility of the display capabilities. The data obtained led to the conclusion that motion blur had a stronger impact on perceptual load than the addition of color. The increased perceptual load resulted in approximately 8- 10% longer fixation durations for all display conditions and a similar decrease in the number of saccades, but only when motion blur reduction was used. No differences were found in terms of threat location or threat identification accuracy, so it was concluded that the effects of perceptual load were independent of germane cognitive load.

Communication research has begun to assess the unique relationship between social comparison, social media, and body image (Lewallen & Behm-Morawitz, 2016), yet little research has been done to assess the unique connection between body dissatisfaction, social media filters, and cosmetic surgery (Beos et al., 2021). Studies have found that viewing edited body images on Instagram positively correlates with decreased body satisfaction and behaviors of body objectification (Tiggemann, & Barbato, 2018). This study used a series of scales to measure individuals' media exposure (MTUAS: Rosen et al., 2013) body area satisfaction (BASS; Brown et al., 1990), facial region satisfaction (FRSS; Guthrie et al., 2008), cosmetic surgery normative beliefs (ACSS; Henderson-King & Henderson-King, 2005), and Instagram appearance comparison (IACS; Di Gesto et al., 2020) in conjunction with eye-tracking, and social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). Measures were used to assess characteristics in visual processing behavior among women at differing levels of IACS, BASS, FRSS, and ACSS, and if media exposure and Instagram comparison tendencies are connected to body area satisfaction and cosmetic surgery normative beliefs. A sample of 120 females 18 years of age and older who use social media completed the scales two weeks before being eye-tracked where they viewed three images of a female's face with and without makeup and one that had been digitally enhanced. Results revealed that media exposure was not connected to cosmetic surgery normative beliefs and that Instagram comparison tendencies were not linked to cosmetic surgery normative beliefs with visual attention, yet a positive trend was observed in that direction. Implications for social comparison theory and recommendations for future research relating to facial beauty filters are discussed.

Adult obesity is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Increasing success in weight loss maintenance will decrease the prevalence of overweight and obesity, and therefore help control the adverse health effects of excess weight. Much is known about the behavioral characteristics of successful long-term weight loss maintenance, but less is known about the cognitive processes behind weight loss maintenance. The purposes of this study were to (1) identify differences in visual attention to high-energy dense foods between individuals who are normal weight, weight loss maintainers, and overweight/obese in a high-risk (food-buffet) situation; (2) to evaluate differences in food choices from a food buffet between weight status groups; (3) to analyze correlations between food attention and food choice across weight status groups. No significant differences were found between groups with respect to food attention or food choice. Overall, findings from this study may have been limited by methodology, technology, and sample size. Future research is needed to better understand the interaction of cognitive processes and weight loss maintenance.

The process of reading in a second language is an under-studied area of research on second language processing. Researchers have found similarities and differences between first- and second-language reading (Koda, 2007; Artieda, 2017; Walter, 2007), and many believe that readers’ successful reading behaviors in their L1 reflect their reading patterns in the L2 (Yamashita, 2007; Cummings, 1991; Sparks & Ganschow, 1995). Others claim that a certain threshold level of L2 language proficiency is necessary before L1 reading ability transfers to L2 reading (Clark, 1978; Cummings, 1991). Eye tracking technology has enabled researchers to investigate early and late reading measures, the former associated with word recognition, and the latter with text integration (Rayner, 1998). However, research has not yet found much evidence for the effect of different proficiency levels in second-language reading behavior. This study builds from the aforementioned reading hypotheses and investigates whether multiple reading proficiency levels impacted reading behaviors of 37 Portuguese learners with native English backgrounds, with the use of eye-tracking technology. Participants read the same amount of passages in Portuguese (their L2), and in English (their L1), each of which ranged from Intermediate to Superior levels, and was followed by comprehension questions. Results indicate that, as expected, participants read faster in their first language and slower in their second language. Unexpectedly, proficiency level did not reveal significant effects on readers’ reading behaviors on their first or second languages.

Gaze-typing opens up a new input channel, but its keyboard designs are not ready for everyday use. To investigate the gaze-typing keyboards for such use that are easy to learn, fast to type, and robust to use differences, I analyzed the usability of three widely used gaze-typing keyboards by a user study with typing performance measurements, synthesized the design space of everyday used gaze-typing keyboards under the topics of typing schemes and keyboard letter layouts, feedback, ease of text editing, and system design. In particular, I found gaze-typing keyboards need “tolerant” designs that allow implicit gaze control and balance between input ambiguity and typing efficiency. Therefore, I prototyped a gaze-typing keyboard using a shape-writing scheme meant for everyday typing by gaze gestures, with the adaption on segmenting the gaze locus when writing a word from continuous gaze data stream. The system affords real-time shape-writing in the speed of 11.70 WPM and the error rate of 0.14 evaluated with an experienced user and supports to type 20000+ words from the lexicon. / Blick-skrivande möjliggör en ny inmatningskanal, men dess tangentborddesign är inte än redo för dagligt bruk. För att utforska blick-skriftstangentbord för sådant bruk, som är enkla att lära sig använda, snabba att skriva med, och robusta för olika användning, analyserade jag användbarheten hos tre brett använda blick-skriftstangentbord genom en användarstudie med skrivprestationsmätningar, och syntetiserade ett designutrymme för blick-skriftstangentbord för dagsbruk baserat på teman av typningsscheman och tangentbordslayout, feed-back, användarvänlighet för text redigering, och system design. I synnerhet identifierade jag att blick-skriftstangentbord behöver ha "toleranta" designer som tillåter implicit blickkontroll och balans mellan Inmatningsambiguitet och typningseffektivitet. Därför prototypade jag ett blick-skriftstangentbord som använder ett formskriftsschema som är avsett för vardagligt skrivande med blickgester, och anpassat till att segmentera blickpunkten när du skriver ord från en kontinuerlig ström av blickdata. Systemet erbjuder realtidsformskrivning i hastigheten 11.70 WPM och felfrekvensen 0.14 utvärderat med en erfaren användare, och har stöd för att skriva fler än 20000 ord från lexikonet.

At least 2.6 billion people all over the world suffer from nearsightedness, among whom 312 million are under 19 years old. Just like other vision problems, uncorrected nearsightedness brings inconvenience to many human daily activities including walking. However, the influence of nearsightedness on gait patterns and gaze behaviours remains barely discovered. This project aimed to study the influence of nearsightedness on human visuomotor coordination in different environmental settings. An integrated system combining motion capture and eye-tracking was implemented for measuring gait and gaze simultaneously. Twelve participants were recruited to perform a protocol consisting of walking tasks in various visual and environmental conditions. Nine of the participants were eligible for data analysis. Gaze time distribution and gait cycle parameters were compared between participant groups (five with normal vision, four nearsighted), and among different walking tasks. Results revealed that comparing with the control group, the nearsighted participants made shorter and slower steps, as well as spent more time looking at the walking path. The walking path also affected the gait and gaze behaviours, with shorter step length and longer step time observed when the participants were walking uphill, while increased gaze attention was paid downhill. The practicality of combining gait analysis with eye-tracking was proved in this project, laying a foundation for future studies of visuomotor coordination.

This dissertation explores how children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD) ‘look’ and ‘see’: how they integrate vision and attention to guide arm and hand movements during a visuomotor task. Chapter 1 provides the thesis context, reviewing the vision and attention literature, outlining the role of these processes in motor performance, and reviewing what is known about vision and attention in children with DCD. Chapter 1 includes a discussion on eye tracking to measure visual attention, and outlines the thesis purpose and objectives.Chapter 2 focuses on children with DCD, detailing their presentation and clinical management. This chapter serves to increase the reader’s understanding of the difficulties children with DCD experience, and to demonstrate the need for intervention to prevent the profound consequences that can impact their quality of life. Chapter 3 presents a study that explores how children with and without DCD employ vision and attention to accomplish a visuomotor task in a natural setting, using a novel eye tracking design. Highlighted here are important differences during visuomotor task performance: compared to their peers, children with DCD did not use predictive gaze to attend to relevant task objects, but rather used vision to guide their arm/hand throughout the task. Chapter 4 outlines lessons learned from using an eye tracker with children with DCD, describing the children for whom eye tracking was not reliable, and discussing equipment and participant factors that impact eye tracker use. Recommendations for future research using eye tracking with the DCD population are provided. Finally, Chapter 5 discusses the clinical and research implications of the studies conducted here. Insights gained regarding visual attention differences between children with and without DCD are discussed in the context of interventions to improve health outcomes in children with DCD and the design of future eye tracking studies. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

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Game immersion is an important aspect of gaming and is a term used by players and critics alike. It is one of the aspects that keeps a player “hooked” and is often seen as critical for a good game session. A Heads-up Display (HUD) is a common element of most games. It is used to communicate vital information to the player, such as health and ammunition. While these two things are important for gaming, there is not a lot of research on how these two correlate. An experiment with 12 participants was set up to investigate how different HUD designs affect game immersion and whether there is a difference between experienced players and novice players regarding immersion. The experiment, set in the game Fortnite, used eye tracking tounderstand how the participants used the HUD, and a questionnaire to evaluate to what extent a participant was immersed by said HUD. The results show no significant effect of HUD choice on game immersion. Moreover, the results did not show any significant effect of expertise. Although not significant, novice players were more immersed than experts. While also not significant, the results show a trend suggesting that a HUD design with larger elements promptsmore eye fixations over all elements in the HUD. When asking what the participants thought about the HUDs, we could see a significant effect of HUD design on subjective rating. / Spelinlevelse är en viktig aspekt inom gaming och är en term som används av både spelare och kritiker. Det är den aspekt som får en spelare att vilja fortsätta spela och ses ofta som en kritisk aspekt för en bra spelsession. En head-up display (HUD) är ett vanligt element i de flesta spel. Den kommunicerar kritisk information till spelaren som liv och ammunition. Medan båda dessa två aspekter är viktiga för gaming så finns det inte så mycket forskning om hur de korrelerar. Ett experiment, med 12 deltagare, utfördes för att undersöka hur olika HUDs har en effekt på spelinlevelse och om det finns någon skillnad mellan erfarna spelare och nybörjare. Experimentet, som utfördes i spelet Fortnite, använde sig av eye-tracking för att förstå hur deltagarna använde sig av HUDsen och en enkät för att evaluera till vilken grad av inlevelsedeltagarna upplevde vid varje HUD. Resultatet visade inte på någon signifikant effekt av inlevelse vid val av HUD. Resultaten visade utöver detta inte på någon signifikant skillnad avexpertis. Trots att dessa resultat inte var signifikanta, så hittades en trend som antyder att en större HUD framkallar flera ögonfixeringar på alla element i HUDen. När deltagarna blev tillfrågade om vad de tyckte om HUDsen, kunde vi se en signifikant skillnad vid val av HUD design på subjektiv värdering.