Transgender parents and their children are virtually invisible in the current literature. Little is known about child outcomes for children of transgender parents or about how transgender families negotiate the transition and subsequent stressors. The current study addressed this gap in the literature by using an adapted version of the ABC-X model and Family Stress Theory to determine if there were differences between transgender parents and their adult children in stressor pileup (A) (impact of disclosure, experience of stigma, and boundary ambiguity), resources (B) (social support and coping), perceptions of the event (C) (perceptions of PGT and sense of coherence), and overall family functioning (X). The present study also drew on past research with transgender individuals, lesbian and gay parents, and research on ambiguous loss to create a model of adaptation to parental gender transition. In addition to examining differences between transgender parents and their adult children on the variables of interest, this study had two main purposes: first, to examine how transgender parents who transitioned after they had children adapted to the stresses associated with PGT based on resources available to them and the perceptions of their transition and second, to investigate how adults who were children when their parents transitioned adapted to the stresses associated with PGT based on the resources available to them and their perceptions of PGT. Specifically, the level of stressor pileup, social support, coping, perception of PGT, and individual sense of coherence on family functioning were examined for each group. The sample was comprised of two groups of participants--transgender parents and adult children with transgender parents. There were 73 parents and 15 adult children from the United States, Canada, the UK, and Australia. The sample was recruited through the use of a purposive sampling strategy designed to reach the target population through LGBT community centers, transgender listservs, LGBT listservs, transgender support groups, transgender organizations, other researchers and professionals working with the target population, and personal contacts. The author sent a recruitment letter and a link to the online survey to potential research participants and those who could send the information along to other potential participants through snowball sampling methods. The recruitment letter provided an explanation of the study, complete contact information for the researcher and the major professor, and a link to the website to complete the survey. Participants received a link that directed them to the appropriate survey (i.e. parent or child). Participants then read the online IRB approved consent form and indicated consent by moving forward with the survey. The survey consisted of demographic questions items that were taken from eight instruments used to measure the variables of interest in the study and the social desirability measure. The survey also included one open-ended question at the end to provide additional qualitative insights. The variables of interest in this study were measured with the following instruments. The Impact of Events Scale was used to assess the impact of disclosure. Stigma was measured using an adapted version of The Stigma Scale. An adapted version of the Boundary Ambiguity for Widows Scale was used to measure boundary ambiguity. Social support was measured using the MOS Social Support Survey. The Cybernetic Coping Scale was used to assess coping strategies. Perception of transition was measured using a scale created for this study. Sense of coherence was measured using the comprehensibility and manageability subscales Sense of Coherence Scale. Finally, family functioning was assessed the Family Adaptation Scale. Independent samples t-test were conducted to determine if differences existed between transgender parents and their adult children on levels of stressor pileup--indicated by the impact of disclosure (A1), stigma (A2), and boundary ambiguity (A3)--social support (B1), coping (B2), perceptions of PGT (C1), sense of coherence (C2), or family functioning (X). Results indicated that adult children had significantly more negative perceptions of PGT than did their parents. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to answer the question, can stressor pileup (A)--indicated by the impact of disclosure (A1), stigma (A2), and boundary ambiguity (A3)--social support (B1), coping (B2), perception of PGT (C1), and sense of coherence (C2) be integrated to predict family functioning (X) for transgender parents? The findings showed that stigma and boundary ambiguity were significant predictors of family functioning, but that the relationship between stigma and family functioning became non-significant with the addition of perception and sense of coherence in the model. Further, when accounting for all variables in the model, only boundary ambiguity and sense of coherence were significant predictors of family functioning. Results of this study suggested that perception is unique to each family member based on their own experiences and developmental context. Further, findings indicated that transgender parents may view transition as something they chose that is within their control; whereas children may view transition as something that they did not choose and that it was outside of their control, leading to more negative perceptions of transition for children. Additionally, results of this study supported the idea that internal stressors are more difficult to cope with than those coming from outside the family system, as evidenced by the ameliorating effect of sense of coherence on the relationship between stigma and family functioning, but not between boundary ambiguity and family functioning. Several implications for theory, research, and practice have been noted. The results of this study underscored the value of examining the extent to which resources were available versus accessed and the impact of perceptions on the accessing of resources. Issues of sampling and measurement were critical. While the sample size was smaller than desired, it is larger than any of the other three studies done on this topic. It is also important to attend to other noteworthy factors, such as divorce and ambivalence, not measured in the current study. With regard to practice, the importance of understanding varying perceptions of parents and children, combating boundary ambiguity, and improving sense of coherence were highlighted. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 22, 2012. / family functioning, resilience, stress, transgender / Includes bibliographical references. / Carol A. Darling, Professor Directing Dissertation; Anne Barrett, University Representative; Marsha Rehm, Committee Member; Ron Mullis, Committee Member.

Family and romantic relationships have been linked to both mental and physical health outcomes. Previous research has lacked attention on precise pathways by which these associations occur and continue to use predominately White, middle-class, nuclear families as the basis of study. The Biobehavioral Family Model (BBFM) is a biopsychosocial approach to health that integrates family emotional climate, biobehavioral reactivity (emotion dysregulation), and physical health outcomes into a comprehensive model. The present study was conducted to examine the ability of the BBFM to explain connections between family processes and health for primarily uninsured, low-income adult primary care patients. Patient participants (ages 18-65 years) self-reported their family functioning, romantic relationship satisfaction, anxiety, depression, alcohol use, illness symptoms, and physical well-being (n = 125). Data were also collected from patient medical charts. Separate models using family functioning (Model 1) and romantic relationship satisfaction (Model 2) as measures of family emotional climate were tested using path analyses and bootstrapping. Results demonstrated support for the BBFM in explaining health quality for this sample. Applying the BBFM to diverse primary care patients demonstrates pathways by which family processes affect the mental and physical health of these individuals. Recommendations for future research and clinical implications are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / March 28, 2012. / Depression, Family functioning, Physical health, Primary Care, Underserved Patients / Includes bibliographical references. / Wayne Denton, Professor Directing Dissertation; Robert Glueckauf, University Representative; Lenore McWey, Committee Member; Ann Mullis, Committee Member.

While marriage may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), marital stress has been shown to evoke greater cardiovascular reactivity (CVR), increasing the risk of CVD. One possible context for experiencing marital stress is discussion of conflict within the relationship. The present study sought to attenuate the CVR experienced during marital conflict discussion through partner-focused prayer prior to discussion. Praying for one's partner has been linked to increased relationship satisfaction, more tendency to forgive, greater gratitude, and less likelihood of infidelity. It has also been reported to have a softening effect on conflict. To examine the attenuation effects of partner-focused prayer on CVR in martial stress, 90 married couples completed both a conflict discussion and control discussion (typical daily routines). Females were randomly assigned to either partner-focused prayer, thinking about God or religion, or mental activity intervention conditions. While overall means indicated greater CVR during the conflict discussion and less recovery afterward compared to the control discussion for systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP, DBP), these differences were not significant. Similarly, mean differences between intervention groups for SBP and DBP during conflict discussion and for SBP, DBP, nLF, nHF, and LFSBP after conflict discussion trend toward an attenuation effect of partner-focused prayer, compared to a mental thinking task control, when controlling for relationship satisfaction, regularly praying for one's partner, and religiosity; however, these results are also not statistically significant. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 20, 2013. / Cardiovascular Reactivity, Marital Conflict, Prayer / Includes bibliographical references. / Frank D. Fincham, Professor Directing Dissertation; Carter Hay, University Representative; Ming Cui, Committee Member; Wayne Denton, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between delinquency and the three primary relationships of adolescents in the foster care system, biological parent-child relationship, foster parent-child relationship, and the co-parenting relationship between these two parents, using ecological theory as a basis. Self-esteem was included as a meditating variable. The sample included 188 adolescents in long-term foster care and was drawn from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW) data. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the direct and indirect relationships in the proposed model. It was found that self-esteem was a significant mediator between the relationship with foster parent and delinquency. Implications for researchers and clinicians were discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 1, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references. / Lenore McWey, Professor Directing Dissertation; Karen Randolph, University Representative; Ann Mullis, Committee Member; Kendal Holtrop, Committee Member.

There is inconsistency in the current literature regarding the association between parenting behaviors and educational attainment for adolescents. Further, current studies are limited in that they do not address macro-level community influences on educational attainment. Such studies are also less inclined to extend such associations into young adulthood. In this study, I examined the effect of four parenting behaviors - parental involvement, parental warmth, parental expectations, and parental monitoring - on educational attainment in adolescence and in young adulthood. Further, the effects of community poverty on adolescents' educational attainment were explored. Findings were also extended to young adulthood. Using a large, nationally representative, and longitudinal sample, results from regression analyses suggested that all four parenting behaviors had a significant effect on adolescents' and young adults' educational attainment. There were also several other individual level factors that influenced these associations. Further, results from hierarchical linear modeling analyses suggested a significant association between community poverty and educational attainment among adolescents and young adults. Finally, several interactions between individual-level factors and community poverty were found. Implications of the findings are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 6, 2013. / Adolescent development, Community poverty, Parental Influences, Young Adulthood / Includes bibliographical references. / Ming Cui, Professor Directing Dissertation; Eric Stewart, University Representative; B. Kay Pasley, Committee Member; Marsha Rehm, Committee Member.

Few studies have examined how physical activities of family members affect the overall functioning of a family in general. This study utilized a family-systems perspective with the idea that what happens in one area of family system will impact others, specifically the impact of physical activity on overall family functioning. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of physical activities of family members on the functioning of the family. Within the family system perspective, it was hypothesized that participants whose family reported higher levels of physical activities would report better family functioning. Eighty-four college students in a parenting class answered a survey regarding their own and their parents' physical activities, and family functioning. Family functioning was assessed using the General Functioning Subscale of the McMaster Family Assessment Device (Epstein, Baldwin, & Bishop, 1983). This study used a simple linear regression analysis to analyze the data. The findings suggested there was no direct association between participation in physical activities and general family functioning. Furthermore, no direct relationship was found from physical activity to stress. However, stress there was a relationship between stress and general family functioning. Implications of the findings were also discussed. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 7, 2013. / Family Functioning, Physical Activity / Includes bibliographical references. / Ming Cui, Professor Directing Thesis; Wayne Denton, Committee Member; Naresh Dalal, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to examine the links between early social capital (kindergarten, 1st, 3rd, and 5th grades) on later academic achievement (5th and 8th grade) in a sample of 900 Hispanic children. Data were from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study- Kindergarten cohort where a focal child started kindergarten for the first time during the 1998-99 school year and for whom data were available through 8th grade. Four domains of social capital were explored: parental involvement with the school, parental involvement in the home, parenting practices and warmth, and intergenerational closure. Academic achievement was measured using IRT scores in reading/English, math, and science taken at the end of 5th and 8th grades. Regression analyses showed that after controlling for certain demographic characteristics and previous achievement (K through 3rd or 5th grades), the four domains of social capital did not strongly influence later academic achievement in 5th and 8th grade. Earlier intergenerational closure provided a small contribution to explaining better performance in science in the 5th grade. The results suggest that the strongest contribution to later academic success is earlier academic success. Future studies should explore other potential measures of social capital, as well as other sources of influence such as siblings, peers, and school personnel. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / May 3, 2013. / academic achievement, ECLS-K, Hispanic children, social capital / Includes bibliographical references. / Kay Pasley, Professor Directing Thesis; Ann Mullis, Committee Member; Ithel Jones, Outside Committee Member.

Problem/ Purpose: Delinquent behavior is a concern during the period of adolescence. In 2009, there were approximately 2 million arrests of youth under the age of 18 (Puzzachera & Adams, 2011). Although a majority of delinquent activity desists by late-adolescence (Agnew, 2003; Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1983; Moffitt, 1993), many adolescents continue this behavior into young adulthood (Hoeve et al., 2008; Mulvey, 2011; Piquero, Hawkins et al., 2012). Since, familial factors are one of the most important when considering delinquent behavior (Nye, 1958), this study explores how familial processes (e.g. parental control and parent-adolescent relationship) along with other factors relate to adolescent delinquency and young adult criminal behavior. Theoretical Framework: Social Learning Theory (Akers, 1973; Bandura, 1977), Baumrind's parenting typology (1965), Social Control Theory (Nye, 1958), and life course perspective (Elders, 1985) are used as theoretical guides in establishing a relationship between parental control, parent-adolescent relationships, delinquency, and criminal behavior. Methods/Design: This study used participant information concerning parental control, parent-adolescent relationship, delinquency, and criminal behavior from Waves I, II, and IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Analysis: Negative binomial regression was used in conjunction with "Svy" estimation method in Stata to analyze the data. Results: It was found that parental control had a negative relationship with delinquency (b = -.048, 95% CI [-.087, -.008], exp(b) or OR =.954, p < .05) (H1). Also, a curvilinear relationship between parental control and delinquency was found (b = .029, 95% CI [.001, .056], OR =1.03, p < .05) (H2). Regarding covariates, older (b =-.048, 95% CI [-.077, -.019], OR = .953, p < .01) and female adolescents (b =-.665, 95% CI [-.748, -.582], OR = .514, p < .01) reported lower odds of engaging in delinquent behavior than younger and male adolescents. Latino (b= .272, 95% CI [.138, .405], OR =1.31, p < .01) and Asian (b= .220, 95% CI [.034, .406], OR =1.25, p < .01) adolescents reported higher odds of engaging in delinquent behavior than White adolescents. Adolescents who were living in a single mother family (b = .327, 95% CI [.226, .428], OR =1.39, p < .01), single father family (b= .613, 95% CI [.413, .812, OR =1.85, p < .01), stepfamily (b= .252, 95% CI [.149, .354], OR =1.29, p < .01), or other family structures (b =.300, 95% CI [.111, .489], OR =1.35, p < .01) reported higher odds of engaging in delinquent behavior than adolescents who were living in a two biological parent family.. Adolescents who reported more peer influence had higher odds of engaging in delinquent behavior (b= .100, 95% CI [.068, .131], OR =1.11, p < .01). Parental education was not significantly relate to adolescent delinquent behavior. No moderating effects were found by parent-adolescent relationship, gender, and race between parental control and delinquency. Delinquency was found to peak during mid-adolescence. Finally, delinquency did not mediate the association between parental control in adolescence and adult criminal behavior. Implications of the findings were discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 5, 2013. / Criminal Behavior, Delinquency, Parent-adoelscent relationship, Parental control / Includes bibliographical references. / Ming Cui, Professor Directing Dissertation; Eric Stewart, University Representative; Lenore McWey, Committee Member; Ronald Mullis, Committee Member.

This study developed and tested a new measure to assess the three dimensions of maternal gatekeeping as outlined by Puhlman and Pasley (2013) to determine the validity and reliability of the measure. Using data from a survey of 460 mothers and fathers of children ages 3-6 enrolled in preschools in Leon County, Florida, findings resulted in a measure that captured the three dimensions. Face validity was established by soliciting support from national experts and parents to assess whether the items reflected their expected dimensions. Then a three-factor solution resulted in separate models for mothers and fathers reflecting the intended dimensions. Correlations between the subscales and those of an established gatekeeping measure and a coparenting measure were examined to establish construct validity. Finally, criterion validity was established through cluster analysis where two groups of gatekeepers were identified representing the proposed two major categories of gatekeepers, and differences in scores on father involvement were examined. As expected, those classified as Polarized gatekeepers, specifically Passive Gatewelcomers, reported significantly higher levels in the quality of father involvement for mothers and father reports and higher frequency of father involvement for mother reports. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / April 24, 2013. / Coparenting, Fathering, Maternal Gatekeeping, Parenting / Includes bibliographical references. / Kay Pasley, Professor Directing Dissertation; Kathryn Tillman, University Representative; Lenore McWey, Committee Member; Kendal Holtrop, Committee Member.

Anxiety disorder treatment is less effective when individuals receiving treatment report committed romantic relationship distress. As such, many have argued that the need to adapt or develop couples based interventions for those with anxiety disorders. In order to effectively adapt these interventions, it is first necessary to create a method to more accurately identify those with anxiety disorders who would benefit from couples based interventions, and determine if those with anxiety disorders who would benefit from these interventions have relationship patterns that are different from those without anxiety disorders. One way to address both of these needs is by examining positive and negative components of committed romantic relationships and using these components to construct committed romantic relationship profiles. Using data from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, this study tested 1) if a two component measure of committed romantic relationship quality provides better fit than a one dimensional measure; 2) if those with anxiety disorders have committed romantic relationship profiles similar to those proposed by Fincham and Beach (2010); 3) if those with anxiety disorders are more likely to have negative profiles committed romantic relationship profile; and 4) if couples with anxiety disorders have a greater degree of negativity and a lesser degree of positivity in their relationships. Results demonstrate the measuring committed romantic relationship quality with positive and negative components provided a more valid measure than one dimensional measures, that the committed romantic relationship profiles of those with anxiety disorders are distinct from those proposed by Fincham and Beach, and that more negativity is reported in the committed romantic relationship of those with anxiety disorders when compared to those without. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 3, 2013. / Anxiety, Couples, Marital Quality / Includes bibliographical references. / Wayne Denton, Professor Directing Dissertation; Brad Schmidt, University Representative; Lenore McWey, Committee Member; Kendal Holtrop, Committee Member.