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The promotion of sustainable development is an objective shared by African Union (AU) member states and the pursuance thereof is expressly mandated by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, 2000 and the Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community, 1992. Lack of access to modern energy sources, such as electricity and the heavy reliance on traditional biomass as primary energy source are factors contributing to the non-achievement of the promotion of sustainable development. These factors are collectively referred to as energy poverty. The African Continent as a whole has limited, and in some instances, lack access to modern energy sources while the majority of its population relies heavily on traditional biomass as primary energy source. Africa can accordingly be classified as an energy poor region–a situation which does not bode well for the promotion of sustainable development. Access to reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound energy services and resources is fundamental to socio-economic development. Mitigating the impacts of energy poverty and more specifically lack of access to modern energy sources on the sustainable development of Africa depends upon ensuring increased access to modern energy sources. The above-mentioned instruments furthermore contain provisions which link regional cooperation on the formulation of coordinated regional law and policy on areas/matters of common concern with the achievement of the objective of promoting sustainable development in Africa. One of the areas of common concerns listed is that of energy. Regional cooperation must accordingly be geared towards the effective development of the continent‘s energy and natural resources; promoting the development of new and renewable energy in the framework of the policy of diversification of sources of energy; and establishing an adequate mechanism of concerted action and coordination for the collective solution of the energy development problems within the AU. The formulation of coordinated energy law and policy should take place with reference to the specific sources of energy to be regulated. In this regard, the provisions of the Abuja Treaty and other sub-regional energy access initiatives list various sources of energy as forming part of a diversified AU energy mix – one of which is nuclear energy. In this study recommendations are made as to what should be embodied in a coordinated AU regional nuclear legal framework aimed at regulating increased access to nuclear energy capable of contributing towards the promotion of sustainable development. The recommendations are based on an examination of relevant international, regional and sub-regional legal instruments and other initiatives. / PhD (Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

This thesis compares the electoral programmes of green political parties in the Federal Republic of Germany, the Republic of Austria, and the Czech Republic in the years 1990- 2014, namely the German party Alliance '90/The Greens, the Austrian party The Greens - The Green Alternative, and the Czech Green Party. The beginning of the work provides an explanation of the concepts related to green politics, such as ecology, environmentalism, environment and sustainable development, whose knowledge is essential for understanding the major themes of the electoral programmes. Subsequently, the origin and history of all three political parties are outlined. The actual comparison is performed in a twofold manner. The first one compares the content of a specific programme with the previous ones and the second one compares the programmes of all three green parties for the same or the close electoral period. Furthermore, the format of individual programmes is characterized. Attention is focused on the major thematic areas, similarities and differences, and on the position of these parties before and after a particular parliamentary election being held.

La plupart des travaux portant sur la politique et la contestation de l’énergie nucléaire étudient des enjeux de mobilisations locaux et nationaux. Cette thèse a pour but de montrer que si les théories de la « nouvelle gouvernance » défendent l’hypothèse d’un dépassement de l’État, elles ne permettent pas de suffisamment saisir les dilemmes et les blocages de la transnationalisation de la cause anti-nucléaire. A partir de travaux de la sociologie des mouvements sociaux, des réseaux et de la sociologie politique, cette thèse vise à mieux comprendre la genèse et les modalités de la coopération et de la concurrence des Verts européens, des ONG environnementales telles que Greenpeace et Les Amis de la Terre, et des groupes locaux et nationaux. De la première conférence internationale des Nations Unies sur l'environnement de Stockholm en 1972 à la conférence sur le changement climatique de Copenhague en 2009, cette thèse étudie pourquoi et comment les militants se saisissent d’opportunités politiques internationales ou européennes. Elle explicite deux dilemmes de la coopération transnationale, à savoir la diversité des contraintes nationales des champs politiques et le degré d’institutionnalisation des groupes de contestation. Elle analyse enfin comment les militants établissent les règles de fonctionnement d’un capital social transnational comme « bien collectif » qui facilite la production, la circulation et la réception de différents types de ressources et de compétences sociales pour les militants. Loin de céder aux sirènes de l’avènement d’une « société civile transnationale », ce travail insiste sur la grande hétérogénéité pdes militants, profondément ancrés dans des champs politiques nationaux. Cette situation explique que l’activisme transnational en Europe demeure provisoire et discontinu. / Most of the work about the politics and contention of nuclear energy deal with local and national issues. This thesis aims to show that « new governance » theories, speaking about the decline of the state, cannot capture properly enough the various dilemmas and conflicts that prevent the rise and dynamic of the transnationalisation of the antinuclear cause. Based on social movement sociology, network sociology and political sociology, this work studies the incremental cooperation between green political parties, environmental NGO’s such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth, and last but not the least, local and national protest groups from the beginning of the 1970’s to the end of the 2000’s. From the first United Nation International Conference on the Environment of Stockholm in 1972 to the International Conference on Climate Change of Copenhagen in 2009, this thesis show why and how transnational activists perceive and size political international and European opportunities. It shows as well how activists face two kinds of dilemmas that prevent further transnational cooperation: the widediversity of constraints of political fields and the degree of institutionalization of antinuclear groups. It focuses on how antinuclear activists become able to build up rules of transnational social capital, understood as a “collective good” that may well facilitate the production, circulation and reception of different types of social resources and competences for activists. Far from turning a blind eye on the contradictions of what could be seen as a « transnational civil society », this work emphasizes the heterogeneity of activists, who remain deeply rooted into national political fields. This situation explains why transnational activism in Europe is still temporary and discontinuous.

Ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans le domaine de l’énergie nucléaire, de l’aval du cycle du combustible et du calcul des incertitudes. Le CEA doit concevoir le prototype ASTRID, réacteur à neutrons rapides refroidi au sodium (RNR), qui est l’un des concepts retenus au sein du forum Génération IV et dont la puissance résiduelle et l’estimation de son incertitude ont un impact important. Ce travail consiste à développer un code de propagation des incertitudes des données nucléaires sur la puissance résiduelle dans les RNR.La démarche s’est déroulée en trois temps.La première étape a permis de limiter le nombre de paramètres intervenant dans le calcul de la puissance résiduelle. Pour cela, un essai de puissance résiduelle sur le réacteur PHENIX (PUIREX 2008) a été interprété de façon à valider expérimentalement le formulaire d’évolution DARWIN pour les RNR et à quantifier les termes sources de la puissance résiduelle.La deuxième étape a eu pour but de développer un code de propagation des incertitudes : CyRUS (Cycle Reactor Uncertainty and Sensitivity). Une méthode de propagation déterministe a été retenue car elle permet des calculs rapides et fiables. Les hypothèses de linéarité et de normalité qu’elle entraîne ont été validées théoriquement. Le code a également été comparé avec succès à un code stochastique sur l’exemple de la fission élémentaire thermique de l’235U.La dernière partie a été une application du code sur des expériences de puissance résiduelle d’un réacteur, de bilan matière d’une aiguille combustible et d’une fission élémentaire de l’235U. Le code a démontré des possibilités de retour d’expériences sur les données nucléaires impactant l’incertitude de cette problématique.Deux résultats principaux ont été mis en évidence. Tout d’abord, les hypothèses simplificatrices des codes déterministes sont compatibles avec un calcul précis de l’incertitude de la puissance résiduelle. Ensuite, la méthode développée est intrusive et permet un retour d’expérience sur les données nucléaires des expériences du cycle. En particulier, ce travail a montré qu’il est déterminant de mesurer précisément les rendements de fission indépendants et de déterminer leurs matrices de covariances afin d’améliorer la précision du calcul de la puissance résiduelle. / This PhD study is in the field of nuclear energy, the back end of nuclear fuel cycle and uncertainty calculations. The CEA must design the prototype ASTRID, a sodium cooled fast reactor (SFR) and one of the selected concepts of the Generation IV forum, for which the calculation of the value and the uncertainty of the decay heat have a significant impact. In this study is developed a code of propagation of uncertainties of nuclear data on the decay heat in SFR.The process took place in three stages.The first step has limited the number of parameters involved in the calculation of the decay heat. For this, an experiment on decay heat on the reactor PHENIX (PUIREX 2008) was studied to validate experimentally the DARWIN package for SFR and quantify the source terms of the decay heat.The second step was aimed to develop a code of propagation of uncertainties : CyRUS (Cycle Reactor Uncertainty and Sensitivity). A deterministic propagation method was chosen because calculations are fast and reliable. Assumptions of linearity and normality have been validated theoretically. The code has also been successfully compared with a stochastic code on the example of the thermal burst fission curve of 235U.The last part was an application of the code on several experiments : decay heat of a reactor, isotopic composition of a fuel pin and the burst fission curve of 235U. The code has demonstrated the possibility of feedback on nuclear data impacting the uncertainty of this problem.Two main results were highlighted. Firstly, the simplifying assumptions of deterministic codes are compatible with a precise calculation of the uncertainty of the decay heat. Secondly, the developed method is intrusive and allows feedback on nuclear data from experiments on the back end of nuclear fuel cycle. In particular, this study showed how important it is to measure precisely independent fission yields along with their covariance matrices in order to improve the accuracy of the calculation of the decay heat.

This thesis is based on the assumption that the intersection of moral philosophy and practical risk management is a rewarding area to study. In particular, the thesis assumes that concepts, ideas, and methods that are used in moral philosophy can be of great benefit for risk analysis, but also that practices in risk regulation provide a useful testing ground for moral philosophical theories. The thesis consists of an introduction and five articles. Article I is a review article on social and ethical aspects of radiation protection related to nuclear power generation. The paper concludes that four areas of social and ethical issues stand out as central: The first is uncertainty and the influence of value judgments in scientific risk assessments. The second is the distributions of risks and benefits between different individuals, in both space and time. The third is the problem of setting limits when there is no known level of exposure associated with a zero risk. The fourth is related to stakeholder influence and risk communication. Article II discusses ethical issues related to the proposal that doses (or risks) below a certain level should be excluded from the system of radiation protection, without any regard for the number of people exposed. Different arguments for excluding small radiation doses from regulation are examined and a possible solution to the problem of regulating small risks is proposed in the article: Any exclusion of small doses (or risks) from radiation protection ought to be based on a case-by-case basis, with the condition that the expected value of harm remains small. Article III examines what makes one distribution of individual doses better than another distribution. The article introduces a mathematical framework based on preference logic, in which such assessments can be made precisely in terms of comparisons between alternative distributions of individual doses. Principles of radiation protection and from parallel discussions in moral philosophy and welfare economics are defined using this framework and their formal properties analyzed. Article IV argues that the ethical theory of “responsibility-catering prioritarianism” is well positioned to deal with the reasonable requirements in an ethical theory of risk. The article shows how responsibility-catering prioritarianism can be operationalized using a prioritarian social welfare function based on hypothetical utilities. For this purpose, a hypothetical utility measure called ‘responsibility-adjusted utility’ is proposed, which is based on the utility that would normally be expected given circumstances outside of the control of the individual. Article V was written as a response to the Fukushima disaster. Several authors have called the Fukushima disaster a ‘black swan.’ However, the article argues that the hazards of large earthquakes and tsunamis were known before the accident, and introduces and defines the concept of a ‘black elephant,’ as (i) a high-impact event that (ii) lies beyond the realm of regular expectations, but (iii) is ignored despite existing evidence. / QC 20120816

近年來，在全球氣候變遷與化石燃料價格高漲的影響之下，節能減碳成了各國政府能源政策的圭臬。正因如此，核能重新被視為一種可行的替代能源，獲得長足的發展。但這股核能復興潮並沒有持續太久，2011年日本福島核事故的發生，使全球核能產業陷入了新一波的低潮。這場核能浩劫，與25年前在前蘇聯發生的車諾比核事故如出一轍，都影響了許多國家在核能政策上的選擇。 本研究針對俄羅斯核能產業之發展進行探討，以了解其核能利用上的立場及發展策略。特別是在2011年日本福島核災後，俄羅斯在核能政策上是否有所轉變。值得注意的是，俄羅斯國家原子能公司(Rosatom)，作為國營之核能企業，展現了其企圖心，矢言成為新一代的全球核能復興先驅。 本研究認為，俄羅斯仍不會放棄核能的利用，而且也將持續進行核能復興的政策路線，尋求擴大在全球核電市場上的影響力。核能對俄羅斯而言，除了經濟方面的利益外，同時也兼具了政治、能源安全上的意涵。除非未來科技進步，足以發展出一種高效率同時兼顧生態發展的發電方式，否則近期內俄羅斯的核能發展現狀將不會有太大的改變。 / In recent years, under the influence of global climate change and high fossil fuel prices, carbon reduction has become a model as energy policy for many governments. Because of that, nuclear energy was re-considered a viable alternative energy source, and developed rapidly. But this trend of "nuclear renaissance" did not last too long, due to Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan in 2011, the global nuclear industry fell into another serious decline. Just like Chernobyl nuclear accident that occurred 25 years ago in former Soviet Union, This nuclear catastrophe have affected many countries in nuclear energy policies. In this study, we discussed the development of Russia's nuclear industry in order to understand its position on nuclear energy and development strategies. Particularly, we would like to see if there is a significant change in Russia's nuclear energy policy after Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011. It is noteworthy that the State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom, as a state-owned nuclear company, demonstrated its ambition, and vowed to be a pioneer of global nuclear renaissance in a whole new era. In this study, we concluded that Russia will not give up nuclear energy, but also continue its nuclear renaissance energy policy routes, seeking to expand influence in the global nuclear power market. In addition to economic benefits, for Russia, nuclear energy also means both the political and energy security implications. Unless the technological progress in the future that is enough to develop a high-efficiency and ecological way of power generation, otherwise, Russia's nuclear energy development situation will not have a significant change in the near term.

伊朗伊斯蘭共和國為中東地區主要國家之一。自1957年與美國合作發展核能以來，除了在柯梅尼政權初期曾短暫中斷外，歷任的領導人皆大力支持核科技的發展。從近年來的發現，顯示伊朗正在持續進行某些秘密的核計畫，使得國際憂心伊朗可能有發展核武的意圖。一旦伊朗擁有核武，將對國際安全產生重大衝擊。 本文分析的重點，在於伊朗發展核科技的背景、動機、經過，還有各國對伊朗核計畫的態度，以及伊朗核武化之後對國際安全的衝擊。 / The Islamic Republic of Iran is one of the major powers in the Middle East. Since 1957, when nuclear energy program received technical assistance from the U.S., its successive leaders have eagerly pursued the policy for developing nuclear technology. The only exception took place during the early years of the Ayatollah Khomeni government when all nuclear program was temporarily suspended. Recent disclosures show that Iran has been conducting several covert nuclear programs, which is considered by the international community as a possible step toward nuclear weapons. This thesis first analyzes the background of Iran’s nuclear development, its motives, and the evolution of its nuclear development. The U.S., Russia, the PRC, and other related powers’ attitude toward Iran’s nuclear programs will be analyzed latter. Once Iran gets nuclear weapons, its impact on the security in the Middle East as well as on the nuclear non-proliferation regime will also be examined finally.

The promotion of sustainable development is an objective shared by African Union (AU) member states and the pursuance thereof is expressly mandated by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, 2000 and the Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community, 1992. Lack of access to modern energy sources, such as electricity and the heavy reliance on traditional biomass as primary energy source are factors contributing to the non-achievement of the promotion of sustainable development. These factors are collectively referred to as energy poverty. The African Continent as a whole has limited, and in some instances, lack access to modern energy sources while the majority of its population relies heavily on traditional biomass as primary energy source. Africa can accordingly be classified as an energy poor region–a situation which does not bode well for the promotion of sustainable development. Access to reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound energy services and resources is fundamental to socio-economic development. Mitigating the impacts of energy poverty and more specifically lack of access to modern energy sources on the sustainable development of Africa depends upon ensuring increased access to modern energy sources. The above-mentioned instruments furthermore contain provisions which link regional cooperation on the formulation of coordinated regional law and policy on areas/matters of common concern with the achievement of the objective of promoting sustainable development in Africa. One of the areas of common concerns listed is that of energy. Regional cooperation must accordingly be geared towards the effective development of the continent‘s energy and natural resources; promoting the development of new and renewable energy in the framework of the policy of diversification of sources of energy; and establishing an adequate mechanism of concerted action and coordination for the collective solution of the energy development problems within the AU. The formulation of coordinated energy law and policy should take place with reference to the specific sources of energy to be regulated. In this regard, the provisions of the Abuja Treaty and other sub-regional energy access initiatives list various sources of energy as forming part of a diversified AU energy mix – one of which is nuclear energy. In this study recommendations are made as to what should be embodied in a coordinated AU regional nuclear legal framework aimed at regulating increased access to nuclear energy capable of contributing towards the promotion of sustainable development. The recommendations are based on an examination of relevant international, regional and sub-regional legal instruments and other initiatives. / PhD (Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

É presentada nesta dissertação uma análise espectral das equações de transporte de nêutrons, independente do tempo, em geometria unidimensional e bidimensional, na formulação de ordenadas discretas (SN), utilizando o modelo de uma velocidade e multigrupo, considerando meios onde ocorrem o fenômeno da fissão nuclear. Esta análise espectral constitui-se na resolução de problemas de autovalores e respectivos autovetores, e reproduz a expressão para a solução geral analítica local das equações SN (para geometria unidimensional) ou das equações nodais integradas transversalmente (geometria retangular bidimensional) dentro de cada região homogeneizada do domínio espacial. Com a solução geral local determinada, métodos numéricos, tais como os métodos de matriz de resposta SN, podem ser derivados. Os resultados numéricos são gerados por programas de computadores implementados em MatLab, versão 2012, a fim de verificar a natureza dos autovalores e autovetores correspondentes no espaço real ou complexo. / Presented in this dissertation is a spectral analysis of the neutron transport equations in the slab and X, Y geometry time-independent discrete ordinates formulation using the one-speed and multigroup model in neutron fission reacting media. This spectral analysis is bared on solving eigenvalue problems and yields the expression for the local general solution of the equations (for slab geometry) or of the transverse integrated nodal equations (for multidimensional rectangular geometry) within each homogenized region of the domain. With the local general solution so determined, a number of coarse-mesh numerical methods, such as the response matrix methods, can be derived. Numerical results are generated by computer program s implemented in MatLab, version 2012, in order to verify the nature of the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors in real or complex space.