abstract: Payments for ecosystem services (PES) are transactions between landholders and the beneficiaries of the services their land provides. PES schemes are growing worldwide with annual transactions over ten billion dollars (Salzman et al., 2018). Much can be learned from looking at oldest and best funded PES schemes on working agricultural land. Initiated in 1985, the USDA’s Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) is the oldest private conservation PES program in the United States. CRP incentivizes farmers to put their land into conservation through an annual payment. In Iowa, CRP has been a source of extra income and a way for farmers to buffer the fluctuating costs of cash crops, such as corn and soy. The dominance of agriculture in Iowa poses many challenges for water quality. A potential solution to the problem, implemented through CRP, is the use of conservation practices to mitigate the negative effects of agricultural run-off. This dissertation considers three aspects of the problem: 1. the relationship between changes in land cover due to CRP enrollment and changes in water quality, controlling for a range of factors known to have an effect on the filtering role of different land covers; 2. the inter-annual variability in water quality measures and enrollment in different CRP conservation practices to examine the cost-effectiveness of specific conservation practices in mitigating lake sedimentation and eutrophication; 3. discrete choice models to identify what characteristics drive the enrollment by farmers into specific conservation practices. Results indicate that land cover and CRP have different impacts on different indicators of lake water quality. In addition, conservation practices that were cost-effective for one water quality variable tended to be cost-effective for the other water quality variables. Farmers are making decisions to enroll in CRP based on the opportunity cost of the land. Therefore, it is necessary to alter financial incentives to promote productive land being putting into CRP through continuous sign-up. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) needs a more effective way to calculate the payment level for practices in order to be competitive with the predicted value of major crops. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biology 2019

Alzheimer’s disease is an insidious neurodegenerative disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Currently, there are no determinants that can accurately predict the onset cognitive decline in AD. This thesis investigates and defines changes in the lipidome that are linked to symptomatic onset and cognitive impairment in mouse models of AD. Using a targeted lipidomic approach employing high performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandom mass spectrometry, direct biochemical assessments, and behavioural evaluation, I was able to (a) profile and quantify cortical and hippocampal glycerophosphocholine and glycerophosphoethanolamine metabolites and signaling molecules in the APPSwe/PS1dE9 and the N5 TgCRND8 murine models of AD and (b) associate changes in lipid metabolism with learning and memory impairment. I demonstrate that glycerophosphocholine metabolism in the cortex but not the hippocampus is altered at symptomatic onset in both mouse models. These same metabolic changes were seen in younger animals exposed to chronic intermittent hypoxia, an environmental risk factor that accelerates their phenoconversion. In fully impaired transgenic mice, I defined metabolic changes associated with disease progression. To further assess the impact of sex, another risk factor of Alzheimer’s disease cognitive decline, I characterized an AD model of sex-specific cognitive resistance. I demonstrated that transgenic males but not females exhibit behavioural indices of cognitive reserve when tested in the Morris Water Maze. Using this mouse line, I then investigated how measures of learning and memory associated with glycerophosphocholine and glycerophosphoethanolamine metabolism. I identified increases in critical glycerophosphoethanolamine metabolites linked to spatial learning and memory impairment in the cortex of N5 TgCNRD8 mice and demonstrated that these changes could be predicted by profiling the plasma glycerophosphoethanolamine lipidome. Taken together, this thesis links glycerophospholipid metabolism to the onset and progression of learning and memory impairment in experimental models of AD and provides the first evidence that changes in cortical lipid metabolism can be predicted by changes in the plasma lipidome.

According to the theory of cognitive reserve, cognitively enriching aspects of life experience (e.g., education, occupation, and leisure activity) foster the development of more efficient neural networks and cognitive strategies, enabling individuals to cope more effectively with the pathology of dementia. Using extant data from a population-based study, we examined: (1) the effect of reserve accrued through middle life on course of neuropsychological decline; and (2) the role of ongoing engagement in mentally stimulating leisure activities in rate of general cognitive and functional deterioration. In linear mixed models, level of occupational attainment did not affect rate of cognitive or functional decline, although women were found to undergo more rapid deterioration in cognitive ability. Occupational skill area was associated with trajectory of decline in several neuropsychological domains. Specifically, vocations emphasizing practical, hands-on skills were associated with slower deterioration in auditory-verbal and visual memory, as well as visuospatial and constructional abilities. Teaching and helping professions, in contrast, were associated with more rapid decline in memory and executive functioning. Increased engagement in cognitive leisure activities through late life was associated with slower deterioration in general cognitive ability in mild dementia, but its effects were no longer evident in more severe AD. An understanding of how rate of decline intersects with patients' past histories and efforts to maintain and enhance cognitive capacity will enable clinicians to target areas for cognitive training and rehabilitative therapy.

According to cognitive reserve theory, challenging and/or stimulating cognitive activities can build a theoretical reserve, which may lead to a delay in the clinical expression of dementia and/or Alzheimer's Disease. These cognitively stimulating activities are thought to build cognitive strategies and neural pathways that are more efficient, enabling the individual to live symptom-free for a longer period of time. One mechanism through which cognitive reserve can be built is by participating in an occupation high in cognitive complexity. When individuals hold an occupation that is high in complexity, they may build their cognitive reserve in such a manner as to reduce their risk for dementia in late life. Using extant data from an existing longitudinal, population-based study, we examined the effect of various subdomains of cognitive complexity of the longest-held job on dementia risk. In cox regression models, individuals holding agricultural occupations and occupations high in complexity of interaction with machinery, equipment, tools and inanimate objects ("Things") had an increased risk for both AD and dementia. Socioeconomic status was found to partially mediate the relationship between high Things complexity and dementia/AD risk, as well as the relationship between agricultural occupations and dementia/AD risk. While there has been some debate regarding whether results reflect a true effect of occupational complexity or simply an effect of education, results from this study indicate that both occupational complexity and education contribute unique effects to dementia/AD risk. Gender, job duration, and APOE genotype were not found to moderate any of the above associations. An understanding of how occupational complexity impacts cognitive reserve and risk for dementia/AD will enable individuals as well as clinicians to implement activities that enhance cognitive reserve and lead to a greater number of years lived symptom-free from dementia/AD.

The objectives of this research were to investigate the ecological importance of soil seed reserves and seed rain on regeneration of a good condition sagebrush- grass range vegetation after a wildfire and draw conclusions leading to better understanding and management of such ecosystems. Investigations were conducted for two successive years on a community where major plants were neither rhizomatous nor sprouting. In such cases soil seed reserves and seed rain have to be the main source of regeneration. In addition to monitoring soil seed reserves and seed rain, vegetation changes during the past two years and the historical conditions of the study area were examined. Study of germinable soil seed reserve dynamics showed that fire can have a destructive effect on this portion of the community. Cheatgrass soil seed reserves were high even in good condition sagebrush-grass vegetation. Although fire reduced the Bromus tectorum seed bank by half, the cover of this grass increased to almost twice the level observed on the control (unburned) plots a year later. This shows the enormous reproductive capacity of this highly competitive weed species following a wildfire. Even though the pre-burn vegetation contained a high proportion of native perennial plants, soil seed reserves and seed rain had very small proportions of their germinable seeds. Timing of the fire is likely important in controlling undesirable range plants and their seeds. Had the fire occurred earlier when more seeds were attached to the culms, greater reduction in cheatgrass probably would have been obtained. Timing of the fire was just right to control sagebrush, because it occurred before their seed set and complete destruction of this species was achieved. Mormon tea was the only shrub to reestablish its cover relatively rapidly. This was related to its strong ability to sprout from root crowns. Greater germinable soil seed reserves were found under shrub canopies than in the inter spaces. This is probably related to the semi-logarithmic dispersal of seed where seed fall is greatest closest to mother plants (Harper 1977). Since flammable fuel follows the same pattern, it was found that fire has a serious impact on soil seed reserves at "hot" points, but temperatures were apparently not hot enough to cause much damage on seed banks at "cold" points in the former interspaces. Since soil seed reserves accumulate in significantly higher proportions in the surface 0-2 cm, fire has a more serious impact on the seeds in surface soil than those lower lower down. Variance of the germinable seed rain was so high that none of the grand totals, life forms totals and species values were statistically significant at alpha

Biscayne National Park is located off the southeast coast of Florida and attracts approximately half a million visitors annually. Managers of Biscayne National Park are proposing a new General Management Plan (GMP) in order to update the recreational and commercial use of resources in the park. A Fishery Management Plan (FMP) is also being drafted simultaneously in conjunction with the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission in order to address concerns associated with management of fish stocks within the park. The proposed plan alternatives of the GMP and the recommendations of the FMP were developed in response to the negative impacts on the park's marine ecosystem due to exponential population growth of the adjacent Miami metropolitan area. Problems associated with decreasing water quality, habitat degradation, and species exploitation contribute to the diminishing integrity of resources in the park and surrounding area. Currently commercial and recreational fishing are allowed in most of Biscayne National Park. The National Park Service's proposed alternatives are highly complex in order to make an attempt at appeasing stakeholder interests. In addition the recommendations of the FMP join the GMP alternatives in omitting marine reserves, a management practice that is widely thought by the scientific community to be an important step in marine resource rehabilitation. At present, there is a noticeable absence of scientific information and lack of participation of scientists in management decisions. Biscayne National Park would ultimately benefit by incorporating marine reserves into the park, and adjusting them based on scientific studies conducted by an appointed Scientific Advisory Board. Partnerships with state, federal, and international agencies could promote the idea of being a part of a marine reserve network for optimal resource protection in the Caribbean. An increase in revenue from a permit system and entrance fees would also promote enforcement and protection of park resources. Simple but strong regulation in the park could also help alleviate enforcement problems. In addition education of park resource users should be expanded inside and outside the park.

Coastal marshes serve important ecologic and economic functions, such as providing habitat, absorbing floodwaters and storm surges, and sequestering carbon. Throughout the northern Gulf of Mexico, coastal marshes are disappearing due to wave attack, sea-level rise, sediment export, and subsidence. Marsh area increases when sediments accumulate at the marsh shoreline, accrete vertically, and when non-marsh areas are colonized by marsh vegetation. Marsh shoreline erosion results in net marsh loss when transgression rates at the marsh-water edge exceed upland-marsh migration. The balance between marsh destroying and marsh creating processes determines the long-term survivability of a marsh system. Thus, processes of shoreline change are important considerations when evaluating the overall health and vulnerability of coastal marshes. Shoreline erosion can be measured using remotely sensed data in a geographic information system. Using shoreline position delineated from aerial imagery, historic maps, and field surveys, shoreline change analysis estimates long- and short-term shoreline movements to identify erosion or accretion for coastal marshes at the Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (GBNERR) and Wildlife Refuge (GBNWR) on the border of Mississippi and Alabama, USA. However, these techniques do not directly provide information on sediment deposition on the marsh surface. To understand sediment deposition, four study sites provide in-situ measurements of sediment deposition using sediment plates and sediment tracers (silica beads) that were collected every three months. Analysis of the shoreline change data and in-situ sediment data for the GBNERR showed that in 2017, all of the shorelines at the study sites are eroding at rates between -0.50 m/yr and -3.39 m/yr, an average rate of -1.45 m/yr. Positive sediment deposition rates were measured from 5-20 meters inland of the marsh shoreline during each season (3-month period) (0.19 ± 0.05 cm [Fall], 0.26 ± 0.11 cm [Winter], 0.48 ± 0.12 cm [Spring], 0.63 ± 0.15 cm [Summer]), indicating sediment deposition increased with every season. Sediment tracer (silica-bead) counts confirmed that sediment was transported onto the marsh surface from eroding marsh shorelines. Higher energy sites had more beads deposited on the sediment plates than the low energy tidal creek site, due to the different wave and tidal conditions between the sites. Increased wave and tidal energy correlated to increased sediment transport further into the marsh. The relative importance of this marsh cannibalism for the long-term marsh survival depends on factors, such as wave attack, as they control the rate of persistent lateral marsh loss. This findings in this thesis suggests that material from eroding marsh edges contributes to the ability of the interior of marshes to maintain their elevation with respect to rising sea levels.

This study was conducted at the Ailao Mountain National Natural Reserve (NNR) in natural vegetation described as: Lithocarpus xylocarpus/Castanopsis wattii (Oak /Chestnut association) forest. Study sites were located in the Xujiaba area of the reserve at an altitude of ~ 2450 m with slopes of 10-15 degrees. This type of forest is believed to be unique to the NEAR area. The forest is floristically characterized by multiple families and genera. It has two tall tree layers, a well-developed bamboo (Sinarundinaria nitida) layer and evergreen fern species. Bryophyte, ferns and lichen occur and abundant epiphytic bryophyte is present on tree boles.A number of important aspects of nutrient cycling, including patterns of biomass and nutrient accumulation; nutrient return in litterfall and release from decomposing leaf litter; annual nutrient uptake and retention, and nutrient input and output budgets through hydrological flux in natural Lithocarpus/Castanopsis forest in the reserve, were investigated.This natural forest is characterized by high biomass accumulation of living and dead materials. Trees account for >90 % of total biomass. Dead wood comprises a high proportion (9-41 %) of total stand biomass. The sequence of inorganic nutrient element content decreased in the order leave s>b ranche s>roots> stems. Elemental content of the total stand decreased in the order of C>Ca>N>K>AI>Mg>P>Fe>Mn. The elements C, Ca and N were mainly in stems while AI and Fe were mainly in roots.Litterfall was sampled using traps during the period 1991-1999. High variations in litter production between years were associated with masting years of canopy species, and exceptional physical events (strong winds and snow). The mean annual litterfall is 7.12 t ha-1 with a bimodal seasonal pattern in litterfall: the main litterfall peak occurred in April-May and a lesser one in October-November. Woody ++ / litter and reproductive parts contribute relatively high proportions in this natural forest compared with other montane forests. Woody litter had low N and P concentrations compared with the leaf and reproductive parts. Elements return to the soil through small litterfall decreases in the order C>N>Ca>K>Mg>Mn>AI>P>Fe.The standard litter-bag technique was used to determine decomposition of leaf litter from three dominant canopy species (L. xylocarpus, L. chintungensis, C. wattii), one dominant understory species (the bamboo S. nitida) and a mixture of dominant bryophytes between Nov. 1997 and Oct. 1999. In each case, fast initial litter decomposition was followed by lower rates. Decomposition rates of canopy species and bamboo leaf litter appear to be controlled by initial concentration of lignin, N and P more than by morphological features of the leaves. P seemed to limit decomposition of all leaf litter, both initially and later. Nutrient release from decomposing leaf litter is in the order of K>Mg>Ca>N>P>~Fe, except for bamboo (S. nitida) K>Ca> P>N>Mg>Mn>Fe.Nutrient fluxes in bulk precipitation, throughfall and stemflow were measured in the natural forest between Jan. 1998 and Dec. 1999. This forest exhibited low interception by the canopy (13 % of total rainfall). N, P, Ca and S annual throughfall inputs were mainly from precipitation, while most of the K and two thirds of the Mg throughfall input was due to canopy leaching. There were significant effects of epiphytes on the amount and chemical composition of stemflow. Water volume and annual amounts of N, Ca and Mg were reduced, while K, P and S 1 were increased in stemflow after removing epiphytes on boles and branches.Plot- and catchment level approaches were applied to determine nutrient output from the ecosystem during the study period. The results indicated that this catchment has a subsurface flow system. ++ / The amounts of percolation water varied with soil depths. Concentrations of all nutrient elements studied were greater in surface water than in soil solution and stream water. The budgets for all nutrient elements between atmospheric inputs and outputs by both seepage and stream flow were positive, except for calcium (negative).This forest appears to be characterized by relatively high nutrient return (5.6-8.0 % of the total storage) and low nutrient retention (2.0-2.7 % of the total storage). The relative rate of nutrient cycling occupies an intermediate position between temperate evergreen broad-leaved forest and tropical montane rain forest, it is closer to montane rain forests in rates of nutrient circulation.

Mammalian pests are excluded from Maungatautari Ecological Island by an XcluderTM pest-proof fence. Inevitably, the fence integrity will be compromised at some point by mechanisms such as treefall and flood-scour: such events could lead to pest re-invasion. Knowledge of pest activity directly outside the reserve would assist reserve managers in developing optimal breach-response procedures. This thesis described baseline data on the presence, timing of activity and behaviour of mammalian pest animals found directly at the Maungatautari fence. Two seasonal video studies investigated the effects of season (summer and winter), exterior habitat (forest and pasture) and simulated breach type ('tree-fall' and 'flood scour') on the number of pest sightings. Significantly more sightings were recorded in summer (788) than in winter (428), particularly for rodents. Rabbits were sighted significantly more often at pasture sites, but habitat type did not significantly affect sightings of any other species; nor did breach type affect sightings of any species. Ship rats were commonly sighted within the fence hood gutter. Overall, rodent, possum and cat sightings were very high, and mustelid sightings extremely low, in both seasons. Over 95% of non-lagomorph sightings were nocturnal, and the greatest threat of invasion was found to come nocturnally, from mice, and in the summer. A probability model showed that although the cumulative probability of a mammalian pest encountering a fence breach increases dramatically after dark, in reality there is always a threat of encounter, and this is always increasing with time. Over the same two studies, the behaviour of pest mammals sighted was also described. Pests were found to show interest in and enter summer breaches more often than winter breaches (p lt 0.001). Simulated breaches were encountered by pests within the first 24 hours at a very high rate (95% summer, 92.5% winter), and most likely to enter a breach were rodents. Over 7 days, breaches were encountered and entered by increasing numbers of species and possibly by more individuals; all species were shown to be willing to enter. The threat of invasion by ship rats was probably underestimated because of their higher activity within the fence hood than at the fence base; mustelids may also offer a greater threat than the results suggest, because they almost always entered a breach. It was strongly recommended that when the fence integrity is compromised, physical response should be as quick as possible, especially at night. Future research was strongly encouraged, particularly to understand invasion behaviour of animals such as ship rats and stoats, and to describe pest behaviour at real breach events.

This thesis begins by revisiting and building on themes of labour market segmentation, with particular reference given to Marx's seminal account of segmentation in Capital, Vol.1 (Chapter 25). Marx distinguishes between an active army - the stable full-time employed - and the relative surplus population - the precariously employed reserve army and the residual surplus - and suggests further fragmentation of these main groups into sub-strata. Marx's perspective of segmentation is grounded in fragments of a general theory of employment that, as a long-term tendency, identifies continual advances in constant capital that abolish work and proliferate the reserve army. This thesis builds on these themes by formulating a concept, the 'transference dynamic', which underpins a general theory of employment segmentation. A short history of segmentation under capitalism traces recent phases of development in both developed and lesser-developed nations. Stress is placed on the role of political configurations that regulate capitalism in ways that can either counter the general tendency, such is the case under the Fordist model of capitalism, or strengthen its logic. The theory of employment segmentation and the lessons drawn from the historical account are spliced together with an analysis of the contemporary phase of capitalism, labelled here as the neoliberal model of development. It is demonstrated that the coercive international regulatory dynamic of the neoliberal model reasserts and extends the competitive principle of the capitalist mode of production. Through this extension, nations are transformed into competition-states vying for scarce and globally mobile capital to operate on their shores - the primary source of national prosperity and employment - by implementing capital-friendly neoliberalized policy. This analysis of neoliberal global capitalism reveals an expanding surplus population within a context of deepening international segmentation. This employment crisis is expressed as a hierarchy of nations that is determined in part by their uneven development. Those at the bottom of the hierarchy, comprising a majority portion of the world's population, contain a massive reserve army and residual surplus population unincorporated into wage-based capitalism, without any obvious support of means of life and with little hope for the future. Finally, mainstream solutions are criticized for failing to address either long-run or contemporary drivers of the employment crisis. In response, this thesis pitches a project of multi-faceted radical reform that counter-regulates capitalism by adopting a combination of local, national, regional and global forms of democratic socialist governance.