Antalet med en demenssjukdom ökar i världen och siffran drabbade förväntas stiga till 132 miljoner år 2050. Kartläggning av riskfaktorer är en viktig del av det preventiva arbetet. Vissa studier har visat att socioekonomisk status och utbildning har ett samband med risk för att drabbas av demenssjukdom. I denna studie undersöktes relationen mellan utbildning, yrkesbaserad socioekonomisk status och risk för demenssjukdom, samt ifall utfallet ser olika ut för män respektive kvinnor. Ett stickprov med 489 personer från ett longitudinellt forskningsprojekt i Umeå undersöktes varav 70 personer var drabbade av demenssjukdom. Låg yrkesbaserad socioekonomisk status visade sig mer än fördubbla risken att insjukna i en demenssjukdom jämfört med de som hade en hög yrkesbaserad socioekonomisk status. Inget signifikant samband identifierades mellan utbildningslängd och demensinsjuknande, däremot observerades en interaktionseffekt mellan kön och utbildningsnivå där kvinnor med längre utbildning verkade få ett ökat skydd mot att insjukna i demens. Resultaten går till viss del i linje med kognitiv reservteori som bland annat menar att ett högstatusyrke med mer kognitiv stimulans under livet gör individer mer motståndskraftiga mot ett demensinsjuknande. Det är även möjligt att faktorer tidigt i livet, såsom socioekonomisk status under barndomen och kognitiv förmåga, medierar associationen mellan socioekonomisk status och demens. Detta undersöktes dock inte i denna studie men skulle kunna vara av intresse att inkludera i framtida och större longitudinella studier. / The prevalence of dementia in the world is rising and is expected to reach 132 million in the year 2050. Investigating risk factors is an important part of preventive efforts. Some studies have shown that socioeconomic status and education is associated with an increased risk of dementia. This study investigated the association between education, occupational socioeconomic status and dementia. Furthermore, outcomes for men and women were investigated. A sample of 489 people from a longitudinal study in Umeå, Sweden, was examined and 70 people in the sample was afflicted by dementia. Low occupational socioeconomic status was shown to more than double the risk of being afflicted by dementia compared to those with a high occupational socioeconomic status. No significant association could be identified between the length of education and dementia but an interaction between gender and length of education was identified where more years of education had a protective effect for women. The findings are partially consistent with the cognitive reserve theory, which states that having an occupation with higher status and more cognitive stimulation during life will postpone dementia onset. It is also possible that early life circumstances like childhood socioeconomic status and cognitive ability mediates the association between socioeconomic status and dementia which makes this an interesting area of exploration for future research.

The introductory part of the diploma thesis deals with the concept of health and the factors that influence it. The aim is to grasp the effect of socioeconomic status on the health and to analyze complementary and alternative medicines. The specificity of the health market, the expenditures on the health service, subjects which finance a health care, the state health policy focusing on drug policy and pharmacoeconomic are remarked. The paper also refers to the history of drugs and medicines, their consumption and development in conjunction with pharmacoeconomic. Marketing mix in terms of pharmacy describes the product (i.e. a drug) and its life cycle, the price and price control in the Czech Republic, distribution and promotion associated with advertising. The practical part of the master's thesis specifically shows marketing, innovation, science and research in pharmacy. The examples illustrate the corruption problems and difficulty of fighting against them. The information about the two large pharmaceutical or medical manufacturers are summarized at the end of this thesis.

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Little is known about leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) habits of Arab immigrants in Canada. Leisure-time physical activity has been linked to decreased risks for cancer, cardiovascular disease, and all causes mortality and increased life expectancy. Socioeconomic status has been recognized as a significant factor affecting health and wellbeing due to its impact on individuals’ attitudes, experiences, and exposure to several risk factors. The purpose of this cross-sectional descriptive study was to explore the levels of participation in LTPA among adult Arab immigrants in central Alberta, Canada, to examine the socioeconomic determinants of LTPA, and to investigate which individual, social, and environmental factors contribute to LTPA participation. Electronic surveys were used to collect data from a sample of 376 adults. The socioecological model and systems theory were used as the theoretical foundations to guide this research. Descriptive and multiple regression analyses were performed using SPSS. Around 40% of participants were physically active. As participants attained higher degrees, earned more money, and had occupations requiring less physical effort, their levels of LTPA increased. The social conditions in which the participants live also affected their levels of LTPA. Being more familiar with the health benefits and having fewer barriers to exercise predicted an increase in LTPA, whereas higher self-efficacy seemed to predict a decrease in LTPA. Family and friends’ support for exercise increased the levels of LTPA of participants. And finally, more environmental support for exercise predicted a decrease in LTPA levels among participants. Findings from this research have the potential to design and implement targeted LTPA recommendations and interventions for Arab immigrants.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka vad för känslor som riksdagens partiers propaganda genererar och vad för utbildningsnivå Alliansen och de Rödgrönas väljare har. Studien undersökte vilket block som genererade flest negativa kontra positiva känslor över hur Sverige ser ut idag. Känslorna som användes i undersökningen härstammade från Paul Ekmans teori om grundkänslor men har utvecklats för att passa in i undersökningen. Metoden som användes var en kvantitativ undersökning där en pappersenkät utformades och delades ut. Utfallet blev att 93 enkäter gick att analysera i undersökningen. Resultatet visade att det inte fanns någon signifikant skillnad mellan vad Alliansen och de Rödgröna framkallade för känslor om hur Sverige ser ut idag. Signifikant skillnad förelåg däremot i att Sverigedemokraterna genererade fler negativa och färre positiva känslor över hur Sverige ser ut idag än de övriga två blocken gjorde. Det förelåg ingen signifikant skillnad mellan Alliansen och de Rödgrönas väljare beträffande utbildningsnivå. / The purpose of the study was to investigate what kind of emotions the propaganda of the parliamentary parties generates and what level of education the Alliance and the Red-Green voters have. The study examined which block generated the most negative versus positive emotions about how Sweden looks today. The feelings used in the study was developed from Paul Ekmans theory of basic emotions. The method used was a quantitative survey and the outcome was that 93 of the distributed questionnaires could be analyzed. The result showed that there was no significant difference between what emotions the Alliance and the Red-Greens brought out about how Sweden looks today. A significant difference, however, was that the Swedish Democrats generated more negative and fewer positive emotions about how Sweden looks today than the other two blocks did. There was no significant difference between the Alliance and the Red-Green voters regarding educational level.

Given the high number of people living with obesity, obesity must be considered a worldwide health issue. Apart from physiological impairments and co-morbid diseases, obesity has also a negative impact on the psychological well-being of those concerned. People with obesity are negatively affected on the social level due to obesity-related stigmatization. Up to this date, the understanding of stigma in the previous research has been limited by neglecting the sociological perspective and thus key questions such as by whom stigma is created and imparted and to what extent the socioeconomic status (SES) determines weight bias. Identifying stigmatizing groups and addressing the sociological dimensions of stigma research could not only contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of stigma but might also improve the development of effective interventions. The general aim of this dissertation project was therefore to identify social groups that stigmatize and discriminate against people with obesity. Within the systematic literature review (Bernard et al., 2019a) a comprehensive summary of published literature targeting the association between weight bias and SES in the general population was provided. The first empirical study (Bernard et al., 2019b) provided data from Germany focusing on weight bias in the form of non-altruistic behavior in a one-on-one situation. The second empirical study (Bernard et al., 2019c) investigated in contrast weight bias on a more structural level. The results of the systematic review and both empirical studies are discussed with respect to theoretical approaches, cultural and governmental structures, and methodological shortcomings. This work provides thus a) theoretical implications as potential orientation for further research and b) methodological implications with regard to the assessment of weight bias.

Research has reported that a predictive link exists between socio-economic risk factors and high school dropouts, including teen-aged parents. Educators have little control over socio-economic risk factors. However, school records and classroom performance data can point to in-school risk factors. The purpose of this study was to help all students by using the in-school data to pinpoint the indicators that predict potential student achievement difficulties in specific areas of curricula. This study was an anteriospective longitudinal study of the 1995 graduating class of a suburban school district composed of approximately 920 seniors. The sample consisted of 344 graduates, 114 dropouts, and 42 teenaged parents. Backward stepwise logistic regression analysis was the statistical method used for model building. An analysis was done by gender at the 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th grades from the permanent records of sample students. The study found that significant predictors exist at each grade level and are different for each group, grade level, and gender with some predictors in common: language arts and attendance. The most consistent male dropout predictors were found to be absenteeism, grades in language arts, spelling, and achievement test scores in language arts. The most consistent female dropout predictors were found to be absenteeism, elementary retention, course failures, and achievement test scores in language arts. Achievement test scores in language arts were found to be the most important in-school predictors for teen-aged parents. The predictors for teenaged parents followed the same pattern as female dropouts and graduates until the 8th grade where achievement test scores in vocabulary, math, and total battery became important predictors. Teen-aged parents were found to be a sub-population of dropouts or graduates. Teen-aged parents dropped out or graduated from school based on the early predictors of dropouts or graduates, not based on parenting or single status.

Social capital is an important predictor of socioeconomic attainment, defined here as household income, but it is less clear how this relationship may vary by socioeconomic status (SES). Coleman's (1988) theory of social capital suggests that context is likely to influence exchanges of capital. Indeed, theory and research suggest that SES may either intensify or compensate for social capital in its relation to socioeconomic attainment. I seek to identify and understand these potential interactions using data from 101,163 participants of the European Social Survey (ESS). Results indicate that while social trust and both absolute and relative social involvement--two common measurements of social capital--predict socioeconomic attainment, the link with relative social involvement was stronger for individuals with lower SES, suggesting a compensation effect. Meanwhile, the link between absolute social involvement and socioeconomic attainment was stronger for those with higher SES, suggesting an intensification effect and highlighting that effects may vary across different measures of social capital. More generally, however, it is clear that SES is a meaningful factor in the value or use of at least some features of social capital.

Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert Auswertungen aktueller Pubertätsdaten und neue Erkenntnisse zum Einfluss des SES auf die Pubertät. Wir konnten zeigen, dass ein niedriger SES vor allem bei übergewichtigen/adipösen Mädchen mit einer früheren und länger andauernden Pubertät assoziiert ist. Im Diskurs über soziale Ungleichheiten und den damit einhergehenden Gesundheitsrisiken betont die vorliegende Arbeit die Wichtigkeit, die Chancengleichheit von Kindern und Jugendlichen zu verbessern.:I Abkürzungsverzeichnis 4 1 Einleitung 5 1.1 Hintergrund 5 1.2 Die Pubertät: Weg zur reproduktiven Reife 6 1.2.1 Physiologie der Pubertätsentwicklung 6 1.2.2 Methodik zur Erfassung der Pubertätsparameter 8 1.3 Früher Pubertätsbeginn: Trends, Risiken und Einflussfaktoren 8 1.3.1 Einfluss des BMI auf den Pubertätsbeginn 9 1.3.2 Sozialer Status und Pubertätsentwicklung 10 1.3.2.1 Sozialstatus und Gesundheit 10 1.3.2.2 Sozialstatus und frühe Pubertät 11 1.3.2.3 Methodik zur Erfassung des sozialen Status 14 1.4 Rückschlüsse zur Vorgehensweise 14 1.4.1 Fragestellungen/Ziele 14 1.4.2 Studiendesign 15 2 Publikationsmanuskript 16 3 Zusammenfassung der Arbeit 26 4 References 29 II Anhang 41 III Darstellung des eigenen Beitrags 42 IV Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit 43 VI Publikation 44 VII Danksagung 45

Purpose: To characterize the association of social class discrimination with the timing of first cigarette use and progression to DSM-IV nicotine dependence (ND) in Black and White youth, examining variation by race, parent vs. youth experiences of discrimination, socioeconomic status (SES), and stage of smoking. Methods: Data were drawn from 1461 youth (55.2% Black, 44.8% White; 50.2% female) and mothers in a high-risk family study of alcohol use disorder and related conditions. Cox proportional hazard regression analyses were conducted, using youth’s and mother’s social class discrimination to predict first cigarette use and progression to ND, stratifying by race. Interactions between discrimination and SES indicators (parental education and household income) were tested. Adjusted models included psychiatric covariates. Results: In the adjusted first cigarette use models, neither youth’s nor mother’s social class discrimination was a significant predictor among Black youth, but mother’s discrimination was associated with increased risk [HR = 1.53 (1.18–1.99)] among White youth. In the adjusted ND models, mother’s discrimination was associated with reduced ND risk for Black youth in middle-income families [HR = 0.29 (CI 0.13–0.63)], but neither youth’s nor mother’s discrimination predicted transition to ND among White youth. Conclusions: The observed race and smoking stage-specific effects suggest that social class discrimination is more impactful on early stages of smoking for White youth and later stages for Black youth. The robustness of links with mother’s discrimination experiences further suggests the importance of considering family-level effects and the need to explore possible mechanisms, such as socialization processes.