The NF-κB family of transcription factors can be activated through canonical (classical) or non-canonical (alternative) signalling pathways, which are regulated by the redundant ubiquitin ligases, cellular inhibitor of apoptosis 1 and 2 (cIAP1 and cIAP2). While the canonical NF-κB pathway is needed for myoblast proliferation, it is inactivated during myoblast differentiation. However, the non-canonical NF-κB pathway is a major factor in promoting myoblast fusion, which is crucial to the processes of myogenesis and muscle repair. Ablation of cIAP1 levels through a chemical antagonist such as a SMAC- mimetic compound (SMC) activates non-canonical signalling to enhance myogenesis. The cytokine TNF-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) has also been shown to activate primarily the alternative NF-κB pathway when signalling through its receptor Fn14. Here I show that alternative NF-κB signalling activity, stimulated by the addition of TWEAK or loss of cIAP1, can promote myogenesis. I also demonstrate that TWEAK is an endogenous myokine produced by myoblasts to promote their own differentiation, and suggest that targeting the alternative NF-κB pathway, with SMAC-mimetics or recombinant TWEAK for example, would be of therapeutic value in the repair and regeneration of muscle for various myopathies.

A fibrose hepática é uma patologia que acompanha outras doenças crônicas do fígado como a cirrose e o hepatocarcinoma. As células estreladas hepáticas (HSC, do inglês hepatic stellate cells) compõem uma população celular heterogênea que se caracteriza por transitar entre dois fenótipos. As células com fenótipo quiescente possuem a capacidade de armazenar vitamina A em gotas lipídicas. Os insultos ao fígado desencadeiam uma resposta inflamatória que gera estímulos parácrinos e autócrinos mediados por citocinas e espécies reativas. Neste contexto, as HSC assumem um fenótipo ativado fibrogênico e tornam-se responsáveis pela cicatrização hepática. Danos crônicos ao fígado levam a uma deposição de matriz extracelular exagerada que configura o estado patológico da fibrose. O resveratrol (RSV – 3,4’,5-tri-hidroxi-trans-estilbeno) é uma fitoalexina produzida por algumas espécies de plantas. Inúmeros efeitos benéficos à saúde são atribuídos ao RSV por causa do seu potencial antioxidante, antiinflamatório e pró-apoptótico. Estudos anteriores mostraram que tratamento da GRX, uma linhagem murina de HSC ativadas, com concentrações de RSV próximas as biodisponíveis (0,1 a 1 μM) resultou em parada do ciclo na fase S com consequente inibição de proliferação celular, um efeito associado à citotoxicidade e que pode favorecer a resolução da fibrose hepática. Neste estudo, por técnicas espectrofotométricas, foi demonstrado que tratamento da GRX por 24 horas com concentrações entre 0,1 a 50 μM de RSV promoveu um efeito pró-oxidante que causa uma citotoxicidade dependente da dose, bastante aumentada no grupo tratado com a concentração mais alta. Os efeitos citotóxicos atenuados encontrados nas células tratadas por 120 horas sugerem que a GRX pode se tornar resistente a estes efeitos. O potencial pró-oxidante do RSV foi o ponto de partida para investigar a possibilidade de que esta fitoalexina provocasse uma alteração no metabolismo mitocondrial da GRX. Para isso, os efeitos do RSV (1 a 50 μM) na função mitocondrial, na indução de morte mediada por estas organelas e na autofagia/mitofagia foram investigados por técnicas de espectrofotometria, de imunocitoquímica, de citometria de fluxo, de microscopia confocal e de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão em GRX tratadas por 24 e 120 horas. Foi demonstrado que todas as concentrações de RSV promovem apoptose por meio da ativação de caspases, alteram a dinâmica/função mitocondrial e induzem o aumento de autofagia/mitofagia na GRX. No entanto, o RSV provocou biogênese de mitocôndrias nos grupos tratados com 1 e 10 μM, enquanto que o tratamento com 50 μM causou dano celular evidente na GRX, sem induzir biogênese de mitocôndrias. Desta forma, é possível que a citotoxicidade “dose-dependente” do RSV, que causa a morte celular e dano oxidativo em 24 horas de tratamento, esteja relacionada com o desequilíbrio entre a indução concomitante de apoptose mediada por dano mitocondrial, autofagia/mitofagia e biogênese de mitocôndrias. Por fim, foi investigada a liberação de TNF-α, Interleucina-6 e Interleucina-10 pela GRX tratada por 24 e 120 horas com RSV (0,1 a 50 μM), considerando o papel antiinflamatório do RSV e o papel das HSC ativadas na sinalização autócrina que contribui para a modulação fenotípica destas células. Foi demonstrado que o tratamento da GRX com RSV por 24 e 120 horas induziu a redução da liberação de Interleucina-6; enquanto que a liberação de TNF-α e Interleucina-10 foi aumentada. Estes resultados confirmam um efeito antiinflamatório do RSV que deve contribuir na prevenção da ativação ou da perpetuação do estado ativado das HSC por meio de sinalização autócrina. Ainda que a concentração do RSV seja importante para efetivamente induzir a morte das HSC ativadas, o tratamento com esta fitoalexina pode ser promissor para a resolução da fibrose hepática por diminuir a população de células ativadas e, possivelmente, prevenir a perpetuação do estado fenotípico ativado. Estudos avaliando indicadores de quiescência em células tratadas são ainda necessários para desvendar completamente os efeitos do RSV quanto às possibilidades de inibição da perpetuação ou reversão fenotípica das HSC ativadas. / Liver fibrosis is a disease that accompanies other hepatic chronic diseases such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) are a heterogeneous cell population characterized by transiting between two phenotypes. Cells with a quiescent phenotype are able to store vitamin A into lipid droplets. Damage to the liver trigger an inflammatory response that generates paracrine and autocrine stimulation mediated by cytokines and reactive species. In this context, HSC assume an activated and fibrogenic phenotype responsive for hepatic wound-healing. Chronic insults to the liver lead to an excessive deposition of extracellular matrix that configures the pathological state of fibrosis. Resveratrol (RSV – 3,4’,5-tri-hidroxi-trans-stilbeno) is a phytoalexin produced by some species of plants. Several beneficial effects are attributed to this molecule due to its antioxidant, antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic potential. Previous studies showed that treatment with bioavailable concentrations of RSV (0.1 to 1 μM) promoted an arrest cycle at the S phase in GRX, a murine activated HSC model, leading to cell proliferation inhibition, a cytotoxic effect that contributes to the liver fibrosis resolution. In this study, it was shown by spectrophotometric techniques that GRX treatment for 24 hours at concentrations between 0.1 to 50 μM of RSV promoted a fairly clear pro-oxidant effect that causes a dose-dependent cytotoxicity that was higher in the group treated with 50 μM. The attenuated cytotoxicity found after 120 hours of GRX treatment suggest that these cells became resistant to this effect. The pro-oxidant potential of RSV was the starting point for investigating the possibility that this phytoalexin would cause a change in the GRX mitochondrial metabolism. Thus, the effects of RSV (1 to 50 μM) on altering the mitochondrial function, on inducing mitochondrial-mediated cell death, and autophagy/mitofagia were investigated in GRX treated for 24 and 120 hours by spectrophotometric techniques, immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, confocal microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. All the RSV concentrations promote cell apoptosis through caspases activation, alter the mitochondrial dynamics and function, and induce an increase of autophagy/mitofagia. Curiously, only 1 and 10 μM of RSV induced mitochondrial biogenesis in GRX, while the highest concentration caused an evident cell damage without inducing mitochondrial biogenesis. Thus, it is possible that the "dose-dependent" cytotoxicity of RSV, which causes cell death and oxidative damage in 24 hours of treatment, is related to an imbalance between the concomitant induction of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis, autophagy/mitofagia, and mitochondrial biogenesis. Finally, it was investigated the release of TNF-α, Interleukin-6 and Interleukin-10 by GRX treated for 24 and 120 hours with RSV (0.1 to 50 μM), considering the anti-inflammatory role of RSV and the autocrine signalling role of HSC that contributes to the perpetuation of its activated phenotype. It was demonstrated that GRX treatment with RSV for 24 and 120 hours reduced the release of Interleukin-6 in the culture medium; whereas the release of TNF-α and Interleukin-10 was increased. These results confirm the anti-inflammatory properties of RSV and may contribute to the prevention of HSC activation through autocrine signalling. Although RSV concentration is important to effectively induce activated HSC death, cells treatment with this phytoalexin may be promising for liver fibrosis resolution through decreasing the population of activated cells or through preventing the perpetuation of activated state of HSC. Future studies evaluating the quiescence indicators of GRX under RSV treatment are still needed to fully unravel the effects of this phytoalexin on inhibiting the perpetuation of activated HSC or reversing its activated phenotype.

The immune response to viral infection involves a complexity of both innate and adaptive pathways at the cellular and the molecular level. There are many approaches to begin to define the pathways at work to control viral pathogenesis. The approach favored in this thesis was to conduct a broad screen of the innate immune response at the gene expression level of infected cells. The innate immune response is critical to the control of viral infections. Type I interferons (IFN), IFNα and IFNβ, are antiviral proteins that are an integral part of the innate immune response. Furthermore, by virtue of their effects on maturation and activation of antigen-presenting cells, IFNs are a pivotal link between the innate and adaptive immune systems. Most cell types produce type-I IFN when exposed to viruses. However, viruses have evolved multiple strategies to suppress IFN production or signaling. It is imperative to understand the virus-host interaction at the molecular level in order to identify as yet unknown mechanisms of the host antiviral response; these additional pathways may be useful in counteracting the viral suppression of IFN. Type-I IFNs regulate expression of at least five hundred genes, suggesting a complex network of signaling pathways. Depending on the cell type different proteins regulate the induction of IFN or the expression of IFN-inducible genes. Identification of proteins that induce selected IFN-inducible genes may provide synergistic activity with or may have an advantage over type-I IFN for anti-viral therapy in the future. Many diseases are untreatable if identified late in their progression. In resource-limited countries, many diseases are diagnosed clinically, which can lead to incorrect or delayed diagnosis and treatment. The identification of biomarkers of disease has the potential to guide the correct therapy in a timely fashion. The objective of this thesis was to identify novel anti-viral therapies and disease biomarkers for dengue virus (DENV) infection. DENV is a mosquito-borne positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus, which causes an estimated 50 million infections annually. Most DENV infections result in a febrile illness called Dengue fever (DF). Less frequently, infections cause Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), a potentially fatal vascular leakage syndrome associated with the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. At present patients infected with DENV can only be treated by intravenous fluid support to prevent hypovolemia and hypotensive shock. This treatment is less effective in severe cases if the diagnosis is delayed. Identification of therapeutics with both antiviral and immune-modulatory activity may lower patient mortality and reduce the burden of DENV on society. DENV infection is cleared in most individuals after a short period of viremia {Libraty, 2002 #2225}. Based on in vitro and mouse models, type-I and type-II IFN signaling pathways are thought to be critical in the regulation of DENV infection. Higher serum levels of type I and type II IFNs during acute DENV infection in patients lend support to the above hypothesis {Kurane, 1993 #2152; Libraty, 2002 #2225}. To understand the DENV-human host cell interaction at the molecular level, we performed global gene expression analysis on DENV-infected primary human cells using Affymetrix GeneChips (HG-U133A). We studied dendritic cells (DC), monocytes, B cells and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), all of which are known to be permissive to DENV infection. We first identified genes commonly regulated in multiple cell types in response to DENV infection; we hypothesized that understanding this common gene expression profile would identify signaling pathways involved in regulation of viral spread, activation of immune cells or induction of inflammation. Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), one of the 23 common response genes, was identified as a key link between type I and type II interferon response genes. Pretreatment of cells with recombinant TRAIL (rTRAIL) inhibited DENV replication in monocytes, B cells, HUVECs and DCs. Using the DC infection model, we showed that this inhibition of viral replication was apoptosis-independent. Type-I IFN receptor (IFNR) blocking experiments showed that signaling through the type-I IFN receptor played an important role in the antiviral activity of exogenous rTRAIL. Furthermore, TRAIL also significantly reduced the expression of mRNA and protein of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, MIP-1β and IFNα) and chemokines (MCP-2, IP-10 and IL-6) in response to DENV infection. The data that TRAIL inhibits both viral replication and pro-inflammatory cytokine production suggest that TRAIL has therapeutic value in dengue. The endothelial cell is the site of pathology in DENV infection in vivo (vascular permeability and plasma leakage). To understand the direct effect of DENV infection on endothelial cells and its role in the induction of genes regulating vascular permeability, we compared gene expression in DENV-infected HUVECs to that of uninfected cells and cells infected with other RNA and DNA viruses, including flaviviruses (West Nile, yellow fever, and Japanese encephalitis viruses), bunyaviruses (Sin Nombre and Hantaan viruses), Epstein-Barr virus and vaccinia virus. Among the genes confirmed for their differential expression, ST2 (Interkeukin-1 receptor-like-1 protein-IL1RL1) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) were identified to be upregulated specifically in response to DENV infection. Higher serum soluble ST2 (sST2) levels were detected in DENV-infected patients than in patients with other febrile illnesses (OFI) at the end of the febrile stage and at defervescence (p=0.0088 and p=0.0004, respectively). In addition, patients with secondary DENV infections had higher serum sST2 levels compared with patients with primary DENV infections (p=0.047 at the last day of fever and p=0.030 at defervescence). Higher levels of IDO activity (pIn conclusion, global gene expression analysis identified novel proteins with promising characteristics for the treatment and/or diagnosis of DENV infection. Although further studies will be needed to validate the clinical utility of TRAIL, sST2, and IDO, these studies demonstrate the utility of this unbiased genomics approach to identify therapies to currently incurable diseases.

Celiaki (glutenintolerans) är en kronisk, autoimmun sjukdom med diffusa symtom. Vid förtäring av glutenhaltig mat uppstår en allergisk reaktion hos glutenintoleranta individer. Gluten kan inte fullständigt brytas ned av kroppens enzymer, vilket betyder att icke nedbrutna peptidfragment (såsom glutamin) absorberas i tarmslemhinnan. Enzymet transglutaminas katalyserar omvandlingen av glutamin till glutamat. Glutenkänsliga T-celler aktiveras av glutamat att utsöndra proinflammatoriska cytokiner såsom interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) och tumörnekrosfaktor-alfa (TNF-⍺). Syftet med studien var att undersöka om gluten- och gliadinstimulering av celler i helsaliv in vitro kan inducera produktion av IFN-γ och TNF-⍺. Pilotstudier med 2 försökspersoner utfördes, där celler i salivprover stimulerades med enzymatiskt nedbrutet gliadin (<40 mg gliadin), samt PHA (5 µg/mL), PMA (50 ng/mL) och LPS (1 µg/mL) 20 timmar vid 37 ˚C. Cytokinproduktionen i salivproverna kvantifierades med ELISA och uppreglering av IFN-γ och TNF-⍺ undersöktes med RT-qPCR. Efter metodutveckling upprepades stimulering och ELISA med salivprov från 12 försökspersoner (6 individer med och utan celiaki). Immunreaktionen som uppstår hos glutenintoleranta individer in vivo kunde inte återskapas i saliv in vitro med den framtagna metoden. Hos övervägande delen av salivproverna var cytokinproduktionen under detektionsgränsen, 4 pg/mL för IFN-γ och 15,6 pg/mL för TNF-⍺. Det finns risk för att outforskade detaljer eller agens saknades från reaktionskedjan och därmed kunde den förväntade immunreaktionen inte återskapas. En annan felkälla kan vara för låg koncentration av immunceller i saliven. / Celiac disease is a chronic, autoimmune disease that has diffuse symptoms. Upon consuming gluten containing food, an allergic reaction occurs in gluten-sensitive individuals. Gluten cannot be fully digested by human enzymes, which leads to non-digested peptide fragments (such as glutamine) to be absorbed in the gastrointestinal wall. The transglutaminase enzyme catalyzes the conversion of glutamine to glutamate. Glutamate activates gluten-specific T-lymphocytes to produce proinflammatory cytokines e.g., interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-⍺). The aim of this study was to investigate whether stimulation of cells in whole saliva in vitro with gluten and gliadin can induce production of IFN-γ and TNF-⍺. Pilot studies were conducted, where cells in saliva from 2 subjects was stimulated with enzymatically digested gliadin (<40 mg gliadin) together with PHA (5 µg/mL), PMA (50 ng/mL) and LPS (1 µg/mL) for 20 hours at 37 ˚C. The production of cytokines was quantified by ELISA, and the upregulation of IFN-γ and TNF-⍺ was analyzed by RT-qPCR. After method development, the stimulations and ELISA quantifications of the proinflammatory cytokines were repeated in saliva samples from 12 subjects (6 individuals with and without celiac disease). The immune reaction that occurs in people with celiac disease could not be recreated in saliva in vitro with the developed method. In most of the samples the production of cytokines was under the detection range, 4 pg/mL for IFN-γ and 15,6 pg/mL for TNF-⍺. There is risk of unstudied details or agents missing from the reaction chain, and therefore the expected immune reaction could not be recreated. Another source of error could be low concentration of immune cells in saliva.

Die Behandlung von Fettleibigkeit mittels Ernährungsumstellung und Änderung des Lebensstils zeigt keinen großen Erfolg bei der Eindämmung der Adipositas-Epidemie. Weitere Untersuchungen von Adipositas und der damit verbundenen Prozesse eröffnen die Möglichkeit, die Pathophysiologie der Fettleibigkeit besser zu verstehen und so neue therapeutische Ansätze und neue metabolische Regulatoren entwickeln zu können. Da Adipositas eine metabolische Erkrankung ist, wurde in dieser Arbeit untersucht, ob und wie sich die Veränderungen, die mit Adipositas assoziiert sind und während dieser Erkrankung nicht nur im Fettgewebe, sondern in dem gesamten Organismus entstehen, auf den Metabolismus der Monozyten und auf ihre Funktionen auswirken. Mit den beschriebenen Methoden wurden Unterschiede im Metabolismus und in der ROS-Produktion zwischen den Monozyten von normalgewichtigen Kontrollen und Adipositas-Patienten nachgewiesen, während sich die anderen untersuchten Zellfunktionen, wie Phagozytose und Zytokinproduktion (angesehen von IL-8) nicht voneinander unterschieden. Die Resultate zeigten, dass Adipositas und die damit einhergehende chronische Entzündung zu einer Veränderung des Metabolismus der peripheren Monozyten führt. In Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten konnten ein verändertes Proteinexpressionsmuster, eine erhöhte Glykolyse und ATP-Produktion sowie daraus resultierend eine gesteigerte Bildung von Lipidtropfen festgestellt werden. Abgesehen von Hexokinase I zeigten die Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten eine niedrige Proteinexpression der glykolytischen Enzyme und der Enzyme des Pentosephosphatweges sowie des Citratzyklus und sie erreichten trotzdem eine hohe Konzentration von intrazellulären Metaboliten des zentralen Kohlenhydratstoffwechsel und eine erhöhte Glykolyse, was sicherlich auf das erhöhte Glukose-Angebot zurückzuführen ist. Der verstärkte Pentosephosphatweg steigert die NADPH-Konzentration, die mit Diabetes assoziiert ist und zur Zunahme der Fettsäuresynthese und der ROS-Produktion führen kann. Die exzessive Lipidakkumulation ist ein mit der Fettleibigkeit assoziiertes Merkmal, welches nicht nur im Fettgewebe, sondern auch in nicht-adipösen Geweben beobachtet wird. Die erhöhte Lipidtropfenanzahl, die in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten nachgewiesen wurde, kann zu dem aus einer verstärkten Fettsäuresynthese resultieren, die vor allem dann aktiviert wird, wenn der Zelle genügend Energie und Kohlenhydrate zur Verfügung stehen. Diese Fettsäurereserven werden dann von Zellen unter glukosearmen Bedingungen für die Energiegewinnung verwendet. In aktivierten Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten konnte unter glukosearmen Bedingungen trotz des verringerten Kohlenhydratstoffwechsels eine erhöhte ATP-Produktion im Vergleich zu den gesunden, normalgewichtigen Kontrollen nachgewiesen werden, was darauf schließen lässt, dass vorhandene Lipidtropfen für die Energiegewinnung verwendet wurden. Die bei Adipositas-Patienten beobachteten metabolischen Veränderungen in den Energiegewinnungsprozessen bzw. Stoffwechselprozessen zeigten keine Wirkung auf die funktionellen Fähigkeiten der Monozyten wie phagozytische Aktivität oder auf die Zellviabilität. Ein funktioneller Unterschied wurde lediglich im oxidativen Burst bzw. in der Produktion von ROS, die als Signalmoleküle wirken, detektiert. Da Adipositas mit erhöhten Entzündungswerten sowie gesteigerter Produktion von proinflammatorischen Zytokinen assoziiert ist, wurde vermutet, dass Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten eine veränderte Zytokinfreisetzung im Vergleich zu gesunden, normalgewichtigen Kontrollen aufweisen. Dies konnte in Rahmen dieser Arbeit jedoch nicht bestätigt werden. Da im adipösen Fettgewebe die meisten proinflammatorischen Zytokinen produziert werden, könnte sich die weitere Forschung auf anderen Immunzellen wie T-Zellen oder M1-Makrophagen, die einen großen Anteil aller Immunzellen des Fettgewebes ausmachen, fokussieren, um den Effekt von Immunzellen auf den Verlauf der Fettleibigkeit sowie die immunmetabolischen und funktionellen Veränderungen dieser Zellen infolge der chronischen Entzündung gezielter zu untersuchen. Dazu könnten Monozyten vor ihrer Differenzierung zu Makrophagen oder dendritischen Zellen aus dem Fettgewebe isoliert und näher untersucht werden, um immunmetabolische Veränderungen im Vergleich zu primären Monozyten aufzudecken. Die durch diese Arbeit gewonnenen Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die metabolische sowie chronische Erkrankung Adipositas beträchtliche Auswirkungen auf Immunzellen und eine Bedeutung für ihren Immunmetabolismus sowie für die angeborene und adaptive Immunität hat. Der Immunmetabolismus, der eine aktive Rolle bei der Entwicklung und Funktion der Immunzellen sowie bei der Regulierung der Immunantwort spielt, stellt einen wichtigen Aspekt der pathologischen Veränderungen bei dieser Erkrankung dar. Durch therapeutische Regulierung des Immunmetabolismus könnten proinflammatorische Effektormechanismen des Immunsystems, welche zum Pathomechanismus der Adipositas beitragen, besser kontrolliert werden. Ein Beispiel dafür ist die signifikant erhöhte TNF-α-Produktion bei einem reduzierenden Kohlenhydratstoffwechsel unter glukosearmen Bedingungen. Die Resultate zeigen auch, dass die Energiegewinnungs- und Stoffwechselprozesse als therapeutische Targets bei Adipositas darstellen können. Ein Beispiel könnte die Regulierung der erhöhten Glykolyse, ATP-Synthese und ROS-Produktion durch die Inhibierung des zentralen Kohlenhydratstoffwechsels sein, wodurch die Aktivierung der proinflammatorischen M1-Makrophagen und das Fortschreiten des Diabetes bei Adipositas, günstig beeinflusst werden könnten. Außerdem könnten sich zukünftige Experimente auf die Fettsäuresynthese und der Lipidakkumulation in den Lipidtropfen fokussieren, die mit einer erhöhten Lagerung von Entzündungsmediatoren, erhöhten Infektionsrate und somit auch erhöhter Mortalität verbunden sind.:INHALTSVERZEICHNIS Abbildungsverzeichnis………………………………………………………………………. i Tabellenverzeichnis…………………………………………………………………………vii Abkürzungsverzeichnis………………………………………………………………........viii 1. EINLEITUNG 1 1.1. Adipositas – eine chronische Erkrankung 1 1.2. Das adipöse Fettgewebe und das Immunsystem 3 1.3. Monozyten 5 1.3.1. Monozyten – „Schlüsselakteure“ der angeborenen Immunität 5 1.3.2. Aktivierung von Monozyten während Entzündungsprozessen 6 1.4. Das NLRP3-Inflammasom 8 1.5. Immunmetabolismus und metabolische Veränderungen in aktivierten Immunzellen 9 1.6. Zielstellung 12 2. MATERIAL UND METHODEN 14 2.1. Materialien 14 2.2. Methoden 22 2.2.1. Spender und Adipositas-Patienten 22 2.2.2. Isolierung von mononukleären Zellen (PBMCs) aus dem peripheren Blut mittels Ficoll-Dichtegradientenzentrifugation 22 2.2.3. Bestimmung der Zellzahl 23 2.2.4. Negative Separation von Monozyten über magnetische MACS-Separation 24 2.2.5. Zelllyse 25 2.2.6. Proteinbestimmung 25 2.2.7. Proteomik 26 2.2.9. Seahorse-Analyse der Glykolyse und oxidativen Phosphorylierung 31 2.2.10. Bestimmung intrazellulärer polarer Metaboliten mittels Flüssigchromatographie-Massenspektrometrie (LC-MS/MS) 35 2.2.11. Bestimmung der extrazellulären Glukose- und Laktatkonzentration mittels Blutgasanalysator 37 2.2.12. Bestimmung des intrazellulären ATP- und AMP-Gehalts 38 2.2.13. Bestimmung der intrazellulären NADH- und NADPH-Konzentration 39 2.2.14. Lipidtropfenbestimmung und Untersuchung der Phagozytose mittels ImageStream 40 2.2.15. Durchflusszytometrische Analyse der Latexbeads-Phagozytose und der Zellvitalität 42 2.2.16. Nachweis des oxidativen Bursts mittels Luminol 43 2.2.17. Zytokinbestimmung mittels ELISA 44 2.2.18. Statistische Auswertung und Software zur Datenanalyse 45 3. ERGEBNISSE 46 3.1. Verändertes Proteinexpressionsmuster in Monozyten von adipösen und übergewichtigen Probanden 46 3.1.1. Glykolyse und Pentosephosphatweg 49 3.1.2. Oxidative Phosphorylierung, Citratzyklus, ß-Oxidation 51 3.1.3. Weitere Signalwege und Stoffwechselprozesse 55 3.1.4. Untersuchung des Expressionsmusters von Hexokinase I und Hexokinase II mittels Western Blot 57 3.2. Veränderter Metabolismus der Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten: Veränderung in den Energiegewinnungsprozessen 60 3.2.1. Erhöhte glykolytische und veränderte mitochondriale Aktivität der Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 61 3.2.2. Erhöhung der intrazellulären Metaboliten des zentralen Kohlenhydratstoffmetabolismus in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 67 3.2.3. Keine Unterschiede in der extrazellulären Glukose- und Laktatkonzentration…. 74 3.2.4. Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten zeigten erhöhten ATP-Gehalt bzw. niedriges AMP/ATP-Verhältnis 76 3.2.5. Veränderter NADH- und NADPH-Gehalt in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 77 3.2.6. Steigende Lipidtropfenbildung in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 80 3.3. Funktionelle Veränderungen der Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 84 3.3.1. Unveränderte phagozytische Aktivität der Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten… 84 3.3.2. Erhöhter oxidativer Burst als Reaktion auf LPS bei Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 88 3.3.3. Freisetzung von Zytokinen unter glukosearmen und glukosereichen Bedingungen 90 3.3.4. Kein Unterschied in der Zellvitalität zwischen Monozyten von normalgewichtigen Kontrollen und Adipositas-Patienten 93 4. DISKUSSION 96 4.1. Verändertes Proteinexpressionsmuster in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten im Vergleich zu denen von gesunden, normalgewichtigen Kontrollen 97 4.1.1. Glykolytische Enzyme und andere Stoffwechsel-Enzyme 98 4.1.2. Hexokinase I spielt eine zentrale Rolle in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 99 4.1.3. Histonexpression und -modifikation 100 4.1.4. mTOR-Signalweg 101 4.1.5. Immunologisch relevante Proteine 101 4.2. Veränderter Metabolismus in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 102 4.2.1. Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten weisen eine verstärkte Glykolyse und veränderte oxidative Phosphorylierung auf 103 4.2.2. ATP-Produktion 107 4.2.3. Konzentrationserhöhung der intrazellulären Metaboliten des zentralen Kohlenhydratstoffwechsels in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 108 4.2.4. NADH- und NADPH-Konzentration 111 4.2.5. Lipidtropfen (LD) – ein relevanter Unterschied zwischen Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten und normalgewichtigen Kontrollen 113 4.3 Funktionelle Veränderungen in Monozyten von Adipositas-Patienten 117 4.3.1. Phagozytose 117 4.3.2. Oxidativer Burst 117 4.3.3. Zytokinproduktion 119 4.3.4. Zellvitalität 121 4.4. Fazit 122 5. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 125 6. LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 134 7. ANHANG 163 SELBSTSTÄNDIGKEITSERKLÄRUNG I DANKSAGUNG II

Glia are the understudied brain cells that perform many functions essential to maintain nervous system homeostasis and protect the brain from injury. If brain damage occurs, glia rapidly adopt the reactive state and elicit a series of cellular and molecular events known as reactive gliosis, the hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases. However, the molecular pathways that trigger and regulate this process remain poorly defined. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has glial cells that are strikingly similar to mammalian glia, and which also exhibit reactive responses after neuronal injury. By exploiting its powerful genetic toolbox, we are uniquely positioned to identify the genes that activate and execute glial responses to neuronal injury in vivo. In this dissertation, I use Wallerian degeneration in Drosophila as a model to characterize molecular pathways responsible for glia to recognize neural injury, become activated, and ultimately engulf and degrade axonal debris. I demonstrate a novel role for the GEF (guanine nucleotide exchange factors) complex DRK/DOS/SOS upstream of small GTPase Rac1 in glial engulfment activity and show that it acts redundantly with previously discovered Crk/Mbc/dCed-12 to execute glial activation after axotomy. In addition, I discovered an exciting new role for the TNF receptor associated factor 4 (TRAF4) in glial response to axon injury. I find that interfering with TRAF4 and the downstream kinase misshapen (msn) function results in impaired glial activation and engulfment of axonal debris. Unexpectedly, I find that TRAF4 physically associates with engulfment receptor Draper – making TRAF4 only second factor to bind directly to Draper – and show it is essential for Draper-dependent activation of downstream engulfment signaling, including transcriptional activation of engulfment genes via the JNK and STAT transcriptional cascades. All of these pathways are highly conserved from Drosophila to mammals and most are known to be expressed in mouse brain glia, suggesting functional conservation. My work should therefore serve as an excellent starting point for future investigations regarding their roles in glial activation/reactive gliosis in various pathological conditions of the mammalian central nervous system.

No description available.

Recent studies have shown elevated neuroinflammation in a large subset of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia. A pro-inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), has been directly linked to this neuroinflammation. This study examined the effects of two TNFα modulators (PD2024 and PD340) produced by our collaborators at P2D Bioscience, Inc., to alleviate auditory sensorimotor gating deficits and reduce microglial cell activation present in the polyinosinic:polycytidylic (Poly I:C) rodent model of schizophrenia. Auditory sensorimotor gating was assessed using prepulse inhibition and microglial activation was examined and quantified using immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy, respectively. Both PD2024 and PD340 alleviated auditory sensorimotor gating deficits and reduced microglia activation and thereby demonstrated the ability to treat both the behavioral and neuroinflammatory aspects of the disorder. These results are significant and suggest that neural TNFα is a potential pharmacological target for the treatment of schizophrenia.

B. Tech. (Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death worldwide, and the prevalence thereof is on the rise in developing countries due to the demographic transition and urbanization. The inflammatory process, atherosclerosis, is at the root of the majority of CVDs and is caused by unresolved inflammation. Various cardiovascular risk factors such as hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, smoking and aging stimulate the development of atherosclerosis through triggering inflammation. Being in a state of chronic low-grade inflammation therefor places an individual at higher risk of developing CVD, with inflammation playing a cause and effect role. The aim of this study was to investigate the inflammatory status of an elderly black South African population by analysis of inflammatory markers HS-CRP, TNF-α and IL-6, as well as the genetic polymorphism C174G associated with increased serum levels of IL-6 in some populations. The research was conducted in the field of Biomedical Sciences as a quantitative, cross-sectional, analytical observational design. The study was ethically approved and involved collection of 84 blood samples from volunteers in a purposively selected population as part of a larger collaborative study. Serum was used to analyse HS-CRP, TNF-α and IL-6 and DNA was extracted from whole blood for analysis of the C174G polymorphism. The median serum HS-CRP of 6.44mg/L (IQR = 2.82 - 9.86mg/L) fell within the highest risk (>5mg/L) of CVD and 75% of participants were at high (3.01-5mg/L) or very high (>5mg/L) risk. The median TNF-α of 0.00pg/mL was within the normal range and only 2.6% of participants had high serum TNF-α levels. The median serum IL-6 level was 1.92pg/mL and was also within the normal range with only 2.6% of participants who had high serum IL-6 levels. For the C174G polymorphism analysis, 98.6% had the GG, 1.4% the GC genotype and no participants had the CC genotype. The median serum IL-6 level of the homozygous GG group was 6.51mg/L, higher than the 4.13mg/L serum IL-6 of the heterozygous GC group. The difference in IL-6 should be considered with caution as only one participant had the C allele. A highly significant (p=0.001) correlation was found between HS-CRP and IL-6, as well as between IL-6 and TNF-α (p = 0.048). The elderly black Sharpeville community is in an increased inflammatory state which puts them at risk of CVD. The prevalence of the C allele in the C174G polymorphism is low in this population. Further research could be conducted as intervention studies to decrease the inflammatory state of the population and influence health policy changes to improve prevention of CVD.

No description available.