This research examines the relationship of initial public offer (IPO) underpricing and intrinsic value in the Australian fixed-price setting. The first stage of the research contains a review of major underpricing theories (asymmetric information, institutional explanations and theories of ownership and control) and relates these theories to the Australian institutional setting. A baseline model of underpricing is developed from analysis of Australian empirical IPO literature. The second stage of the research is the disaggregation of underpricing into mispricing (MP) and misvaluation (MV) components. MP captures the extent of the issuer‟s influence on underpricing and is measured as the difference between the intrinsic value of an IPO share and its offer price. MV captures the extent of investors‟ influence on underpricing and is measured as the difference between the intrinsic value of an IPO share and its market price at listing.Mispricing is modelled with issuer-related variables that have hypothesised associations with offer price. Results show a proxy for IPO market sentiment and the size of the IPO relative to industry median market capitalisation make significant contributions to the explanation of mispricing. Misvaluation is modelled with investor characteristics that have hypothesised associations with market price. A proxy for general market sentiment and the level of mispricing make significant contributions to the explanation of misvaluation. The third stage of the research integrates results from the disaggregation of underpricing with the baseline model.Several conclusions can be drawn from the results. First, with respect to mispricing, issuers incorporate their knowledge of current IPO market conditions when establishing offer price, with more positive mispricing observed during hot IPO markets. Further, issuers taking relatively larger companies public tend to overprice their issues. This result persists even after controlling for potential scale effects. Second, with respect to misvaluation, overpriced issues (i.e. positive mispricing) are also overvalued by the market. This result provides an indication that price is not a suitable proxy for value. Third, prior Australian research [Cotter, Goyen & Hegarty (2005) and How, Lam & Yeo (2007)] reports a negative association for mispricing and underpricing. Consistent with US results (Zheng, 2007), no relationship isobserved for this sample. Overall, the results from this research indicate that investor-related factors are the primary drivers of underpricing.This research makes eight major contributions to the body of knowledge. The first is the novel approach of disaggregating underpricing into mispricing and misvaluation components. Second, mispricing is modelled and it is demonstrated that previously hypothesised issuer-related factors do not explain mispricing. Third, misvaluation is modelled, providing some interesting insights into the role of market sentiment in the underpricing context. Fourth, the relationships of mispricing, misvaluation and underpricing are investigated. Fifth, the Australian institutional setting is compared to that of the US and implications for future research are identified. Sixth, the baseline model of underpricing consolidates variables developed from prior Australian literature, providing a yardstick for comparison in future underpricing research. Seventh, evidence shows issuers exploit high market sentiment with positive mispricing in the fixed-price setting. The final major contribution relates to the role of institutional investors in the fixed-price setting. Contributions to the IPO literature on ownership and control, signalling, asymmetric information theories of ex ante uncertainty and agency theory are also made with tests of key variables in the mispricing and misvaluation models. Finally, evidence on the role of institutional investors in the fixed-price setting and on the role of demand (informed and total) sheds light on the underpricing puzzle.

No atual contexto da economia brasileira a competição exige das empresas o conhecimento sobre o retorno de seus investimentos. Neste panorama o marketing historicamente encontrou dificuldades para se adequar à linguagem financeira e auferir o resultado de seus esforços. A discrepância entre métodos de mensuração afeta a credibilidade do marketing enquanto área de alocação de recursos dentro da companhia (RUST et al., 2004). Assim, presentemente, os gestores estão sob uma intensa pressão para justificarem seus gastos com marketing em uma economia de redução de custos (AMBLER; PUNTONI, 2003). Dessa forma, este estudo procura verificar o impacto dos investimentos de marketing no mercado acionário, viabilizado através da análise da oferta pública inicial (Inicial Public Offer- IPO), sob a ótica do underpricing (subprecificação) e do índice de demanda. O estudo faz uso de técnicas multivariadas como regressão linear, regressão logística e análise de variância (One way ANOVA). Os resultados sugerem que não há evidências empíricas do impacto dos investimentos de marketing, tanto no valor da subprecificação como no índice de demanda. Ademais, verifica-se que há influência significativa da atividade de estabilização do underwriter na subprecificação, bem como da reputação do underwriter e do financiamento anterior da companhia no indicador de demanda da oferta pública inicial. / In the current context of the Brazilian economy, competition requires that companies recognize the return on your investment. In this panorama, marketing historically found it difficult to fit the language of finance and obtain the result of you own efforts. This discrepancy between methods of measurement affects the credibility of marketing as an area of resource allocation within the company (RUST et al., 2004). Thus, at present, managers are under intense pressure to justify their marketing spending in an economy of cost reduction (AMBLER; PUNTONI, 2003). Thus this study seeks to verify the impact of marketing investments in the stock market, specifically at Initial Public Offer (IPO), in the perspective of underpricing and the index of demand. The study makes use of techniques such as multivariate linear regression, logistic regression and analysis of variance (One way ANOVA). The results suggest that there is no empirical evidence of the impact of marketing investments, both in the value of underpricing and in the demand’s index. Moreover, it appears that there is significant influence of the stabilization’s activity in underpricing, and underwriter's reputation and company’s previous funding in the demand’s index.

No atual contexto da economia brasileira a competição exige das empresas o conhecimento sobre o retorno de seus investimentos. Neste panorama o marketing historicamente encontrou dificuldades para se adequar à linguagem financeira e auferir o resultado de seus esforços. A discrepância entre métodos de mensuração afeta a credibilidade do marketing enquanto área de alocação de recursos dentro da companhia (RUST et al., 2004). Assim, presentemente, os gestores estão sob uma intensa pressão para justificarem seus gastos com marketing em uma economia de redução de custos (AMBLER; PUNTONI, 2003). Dessa forma, este estudo procura verificar o impacto dos investimentos de marketing no mercado acionário, viabilizado através da análise da oferta pública inicial (Inicial Public Offer- IPO), sob a ótica do underpricing (subprecificação) e do índice de demanda. O estudo faz uso de técnicas multivariadas como regressão linear, regressão logística e análise de variância (One way ANOVA). Os resultados sugerem que não há evidências empíricas do impacto dos investimentos de marketing, tanto no valor da subprecificação como no índice de demanda. Ademais, verifica-se que há influência significativa da atividade de estabilização do underwriter na subprecificação, bem como da reputação do underwriter e do financiamento anterior da companhia no indicador de demanda da oferta pública inicial. / In the current context of the Brazilian economy, competition requires that companies recognize the return on your investment. In this panorama, marketing historically found it difficult to fit the language of finance and obtain the result of you own efforts. This discrepancy between methods of measurement affects the credibility of marketing as an area of resource allocation within the company (RUST et al., 2004). Thus, at present, managers are under intense pressure to justify their marketing spending in an economy of cost reduction (AMBLER; PUNTONI, 2003). Thus this study seeks to verify the impact of marketing investments in the stock market, specifically at Initial Public Offer (IPO), in the perspective of underpricing and the index of demand. The study makes use of techniques such as multivariate linear regression, logistic regression and analysis of variance (One way ANOVA). The results suggest that there is no empirical evidence of the impact of marketing investments, both in the value of underpricing and in the demand’s index. Moreover, it appears that there is significant influence of the stabilization’s activity in underpricing, and underwriter's reputation and company’s previous funding in the demand’s index.

No atual contexto da economia brasileira a competição exige das empresas o conhecimento sobre o retorno de seus investimentos. Neste panorama o marketing historicamente encontrou dificuldades para se adequar à linguagem financeira e auferir o resultado de seus esforços. A discrepância entre métodos de mensuração afeta a credibilidade do marketing enquanto área de alocação de recursos dentro da companhia (RUST et al., 2004). Assim, presentemente, os gestores estão sob uma intensa pressão para justificarem seus gastos com marketing em uma economia de redução de custos (AMBLER; PUNTONI, 2003). Dessa forma, este estudo procura verificar o impacto dos investimentos de marketing no mercado acionário, viabilizado através da análise da oferta pública inicial (Inicial Public Offer- IPO), sob a ótica do underpricing (subprecificação) e do índice de demanda. O estudo faz uso de técnicas multivariadas como regressão linear, regressão logística e análise de variância (One way ANOVA). Os resultados sugerem que não há evidências empíricas do impacto dos investimentos de marketing, tanto no valor da subprecificação como no índice de demanda. Ademais, verifica-se que há influência significativa da atividade de estabilização do underwriter na subprecificação, bem como da reputação do underwriter e do financiamento anterior da companhia no indicador de demanda da oferta pública inicial. / In the current context of the Brazilian economy, competition requires that companies recognize the return on your investment. In this panorama, marketing historically found it difficult to fit the language of finance and obtain the result of you own efforts. This discrepancy between methods of measurement affects the credibility of marketing as an area of resource allocation within the company (RUST et al., 2004). Thus, at present, managers are under intense pressure to justify their marketing spending in an economy of cost reduction (AMBLER; PUNTONI, 2003). Thus this study seeks to verify the impact of marketing investments in the stock market, specifically at Initial Public Offer (IPO), in the perspective of underpricing and the index of demand. The study makes use of techniques such as multivariate linear regression, logistic regression and analysis of variance (One way ANOVA). The results suggest that there is no empirical evidence of the impact of marketing investments, both in the value of underpricing and in the demand’s index. Moreover, it appears that there is significant influence of the stabilization’s activity in underpricing, and underwriter's reputation and company’s previous funding in the demand’s index.

This paper empirically tests the theoretical model developed by Aggarwal, Krigman and Womack (2001), which argues that insiders of a firm strategically underprice its initial public offering to maximize personal wealth by selling shares at lockup expiration. First day underpricing generates information momentum for the stock in terms of increased research coverage and recommendations by analysts. Increased research coverage is positively correlated with stock returns and insider selling at the end of the lockup period. Although the value of the stock should be typically based on discounted expected future cash flows, several empirical papers suggest a downward sloping demand curves for new issues (Kaul, Mehrotra and Morck 2000, Field and Hanka 2000), consistent with the assumption of this paper’s empirical model. The hypothesis is tested using a sample of 210 internet-based firms such as Social media platforms, online travel agents, online real-estate agents and E-commerce services. The empirical results are significant and consistent with the hypothesis.

Au cours de cette thèse, nous présenterons les effets de l'introduction en bourse de titres appartenant au secteur technologique. Exploration qui porte sur la période 1997 - 2008 selon un positionnement théorique puis un développement des hypothèses. Nous conclurons par la validation empirique de nos échantillons. Les méthodes les plus usuelles seront exploitées quant à la détection des rendements à long terme, temps événementiels ou calendaire, tout en prenant en compte la sensibilité des modes de calcul de la performance et méthodes d'évaluation des rendements attendus dans l'obtention et analyse des résultats. Ces derniers, reflet de problèmes statistiques, seront dès lors, soumis aux solutions préconisées dans la littérature scientifique. Aussi, compte tenu des spécificités du marché français, nous nous appuierons sur le modèle à trois facteurs de Fama & French, démonstration par le résultat selon le coefficient beta, de valeurs de constante presque nulles et non significatives y compris sur les rendements excédentaires. Enfin, sera souligné le déclin des performances opérationnelles des firmes sur le marché Euronext Paris selon un portefeuilles de référence. Phénomène dû à une fenêtre d'opportunité lors de l'introduction en bourse coïncidant avec un pic de performance (rentabilité économique et taux de marge économique) en période de pré-cotation. Ajoutons à cette cotation souvent accompagnée d'une forte croissance, une restructuration du bilan se traduisant par une baisse du taux d'endettement. / In this thesis, we present the effects of the IPO titles owned by the technology sector. Exploration which covers the period 1997-2008 according to a theorical positioning and development assumptions. We conclude with the empirical validation of our samples.

The doctoral thesis examines real estate IPOs and consists of a theoretical part and an empirical part focused on Polish market. The theoretical part offers an overview of theories concerning IPO and the three well-known phenomena related to initial public offerings, i.e. short term underpricing, long term overpricing and occurrence of IPO in waves. In case of short term underpricing and long term overpricing the theories presented are namely the theories based on information asymmetry, institutional theories, agency theories and behavioral theories. In case of IPO waves the theories presented are capital demand hypothesis, information asymmetry hypothesis and investor sentiment hypothesis. Some of the theories, namely the information asymmetry theory, are then applied to the specific case of real estate IPOs. The starting-point for the empirical part is an assumption that valuation of real estate IPOs is less complex than valuation of other companies and therefore information asymmetry among issuers and investors should be presented to a lesser extent. The valuation of real estate IPOs via their Net Asset Value ("NAV") requires less inputs and parameters compared to the corporate valuations with sophisticated financial modelling of the generators of value. Such lower complexity of valuation should be reflected in better ability of the investors to value the emission of the real estate company shares. Subsequently a lower underpricing of the IPOs should be reached and worse long term performance of the IPOs should be eliminated. In relation to the occurrence of the real estate IPOs the existence of IPO waves is assumed. In addition, subject to the assumption that the economical cycles on the real estate markets are longer than on the other markets, longer periods with higher occurrence of IPOs and longer periods with lower or no occurrence of IPOs are expected. The analysis investigates real estate IPOs which in USA means IPOs of so called REIT -- "Real Estate Investment Trusts". REIT is a special institute that guarantees to the companies that adopt this statute, obviously upon meeting several conditions, exemption from the corporate income tax. The REIT are regularly dividend into so called equity REIT, investing in real properties, mortgage REIT, investing in mortgage loans and hybrid REIT, investing in both. With regard to the fact that the analogy of the REIT institute does not exist in Poland, the analysis investigates real estate companies of similar characteristics to the equity REIT. The analyzed markets are polish capital market and real estate market, which both could have been until very recently called emerging markets. It is assumed that the emerging market environment could have impacted the result of the analysis significantly. The analyzed period is basically identical with the modern period of functioning of the Warsaw Stock Exchange, meaning years 1992 -- 2012. The size of the analyzed sample has reached limited but acceptable size of 22 titles. The subject of the analysis are all three major phenomena related to IPOs -- IPO waves, initial underpricing and long term underperformance. The analysis confirmed occurence of a real estate IPO wave on the Polish market in the year 2007 as the market was featuring characteristics of a "hot" market and investors were overly optimistic about real estate titles. In addition, the analysis supported the assumption of a positive correlation between IPO occurence and GDP growth and also between IPO occurence and the volume of real estate investment on the market. Further, the hypothesis test confirmed existence of initial underpricing in case of the real estate IPOs, however to a smaller extent compared to the other corporate IPOs. Subsequent tests were looking to find correlation between the rate of initial underpricing and several factors of the emission such as size, segment of the real estate market etc. In case of long term underperformance, based on the gather evidence, the test could not reject the null hypothesis about the same of better performance of the real estate IPOs compared to the WIG stock indice. Long term underperfomance was thus not confirmed in case of real estate IPOs. Subsequent tests were again investigating impact of several characteristics of the offerings on their long term performance.

Abstract: Title: Initial Public Offering - buying the pig in a poke? Authors: Tor Averland and Gustaf Borg Supervisors:Öystein Fredriksen Background and problem: The number of IPOs have broken new records throughout 2020 and early 2021 and the pace is still strong. At the same time numerous investors think that companies with sustainable businesses should be valued higher than those with non-sustainable businesses, whereas terms such as ESG have become popular, replacing previous terms such as CSR. The faith in the higher valuation of sustainable companies has grown strong alongside the launch of regulations and frameworks like the EU-taxonomy and the Paris agreement, which naturally raises the question regarding how sustainability is priced and valued in an IPO.  Purpose: The purpose of this study is to analyze how investment banks consider ESG while valuing and pricing Initial Public Offerings, IPOs. The study also intends to analyze how the market perceives ESG through looking at the level of the first day return.  Method: The study uses a qualitative approach with an included smaller quantitative element for a regression analysis. The investment banks´ view on valuation and pricing is given through semistructured interviews that later are compared and analyzed with regards to existing literature on the area. The underpricing is analyzed through an OLS multiple regression approach with underpricing as the dependent variable and four other independent variables with ESG-score therein. With this approach, it can be decided whether ESG-score has an influence on the underpricing of IPOs. Conclusion: The result from the study indicates that ESG is valued differently depending on which person and which investment bank that does the valuation which is a result that illuminates the subjectivity that exists in the valuation of stocks. ESG-score does have a negative significant influence on underpricing, which was contradictory to some of the respondents' argumentation. The quantitative part of the study also illustrates and confirms that less uncertainty reduces the IPO underpricing, which is in line with existing literature regarding ex ante uncertainty and information asymmetry. / Sammanfattning Titel: Initial Public Offering - att köpa grisen i säcken? Författare: Tor Averland & Gustaf Borg Handledare: Öystein Fredriksen Bakgrund och problem: Under 2020 och i början av 2021 har rekord slagits i antalet genomförda börsnoteringar och takten ser inte ut att avta. Det råder samtidigt en samlad tro kring att hållbara bolag i regel värderas högre, där ESG blivit ett populärt begrepp som numer nästan helt har ersatt tidigare hållbarhetsbegrepp som CSR. Tron på att hållbarhet värderas högre har vuxit fram parallellt med att nya regelverk och riktlinjer som EU-taxonomin och Parisavtalet lanserats, vilket naturligt väcker frågan kring hur hållbarhet i form av ESG värderas och även prissätts inför en börsnotering. Syfte: Syftet med denna uppsats är att analysera hur investmentbanker beaktar ESG vid värdering och prissättning av företag vid en börsnotering. Studien ämnar också analysera marknadens uppfattning kring ESG och första dagens avkastning. Metod: Studien har en kvalitativ ansats med ett inkluderat kvantitativt delmoment i form av regressionsanalysen. Investmentbankernas syn på värdering och prissättning ges genom semistrukturerade intervjuer, vilka sedan jämförs och analyseras utifrån befintlig litteratur på området. Underprissättningen undersöks genom en multipel linjär regressionsanalys med underprissättning som beroende variabel och fyra oberoende variabler, däribland ESG-score. Således kan ESG-scores påverkan på underprissättningen fastställas. Slutsats: Studiens resultat visar att ESG värderas på olika sätt av investmentbanker och att det inte finns någon enhetlig bild vilket belyser den subjektivitet som råder inom värdering. Den kvantitativa undersökningen visar att ESG-score har en signifikant negativ påverkan på underprissättningen, vilket faktiskt går emot några av intervjurespondenternas egna resonemang. Detta påvisar att ett bra ESG-arbete som påvisas inför en notering ofta leder till mindre osäkerhet vilket också minskar IPO-underprissättningen, vilket är i linje med befintlig teori som ex-ante osäkerhet och informationsasymmetri.

The market of IPOs experienced its strongest year in over 20 years where 422 IPOs were conducted in Europe. Due to the complex nature of the IPO process, the phenomenon of underpricing can occur. Underpricing can be explained as the positive percentage change of the offer price and the first trading day closing price. This phenomenon is associated with asymmetric information, when one party has more information than the other. Based on previous studies, the existence of ESG tends to reduce asymmetric information and possibly underpricing. ESG is an important factor that companies are taking into consideration when reviewing their business strategy. Besides that, the public sees ESG as a frontier for changing how we fight global problems. This study used ESG scores of companies in Europe that conducted an IPO between 2011-2021 to explain the relationship between ESG scores and underpricing. To thoroughly explain underpricing, this research included industry affiliation and the year the IPO was issued. This is a quantitative study that used a multiple linear regression model, which helps to see the effect between the dependent and independent variables. The findings showed that the ESG score did not affect the level of underpricing in the observed sample. Thus, the market does not take into consideration the ESG score as an important variable when pricing an IPO.

This thesis examines the performance of IPO firms in the Swedish markets during their first three years of trading to investigate what effects different factors have on the short- and long-term performance. The level of underpricing on Swedish IPOs are also investigated to detect any abnormalities from previous studies on larger markets in the US and Europe. A total of 175 IPO firms included in the sample in the period between 2000 and 2015. The method used to calculate the aftermarket performance is the buy-and-hold abnormal returns method in an event-time portfolio approach. These returns are used as a dependent variable in a multivariable linear regression analysis. The main findings from this study are that IPO firms in the Swedish markets underperform the OMX market index one month and three years after the offering. Conversely, IPO firms in the Swedish markets overperform after 18 months compared to the OMX market index. The results show that Swedish IPOs are on average underpriced and that underpricing has a significant effect on short-term performance. Firm age, offer size and the technology industry also have a significant effect on the first month’s performance of IPO firms; however, there is little support for these factors to affect the longterm performance.