Climate change is a collective action problem that has been seen as something that needs a global solution. This has resulted in multilateral agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, which can largely be said to have been unsuccessful so far. This has led to an increased awareness of the potential of cities as being part of the solution. Cities are often seen as key sources of climate change, but also as key sites for climate action. The Paris Agreement needs to be implemented on all political levels to be effective. This makes cities an important site for climate policy implementation. Some scholars of urban climate governance have looked at ways to evaluate climate policies in cities as a way to improve these processes. This study means to contribute to that field. The aim of the study is to evaluate climate policies in the city plans of Stockholm and Dublin. This has been done by testing an analytical framework which made it possible to shed light on the strengths and weaknesses of the climate policies and the governance structures in the plans. By doing this it was also possible to identify challenges in using the framework and give suggestions on how the framework can be improved. The study takes the form of a comparative case study of the two cities. Document analysis was used as a method to select and analyse the data and the empirical material consisted of the city plans of Stockholm and Dublin. These are policy documents containing general development plans of the cities. It was concluded that both plans contain both strengths and weaknesses. Examples of strengths are that both plans are well-integrated with activities on the regional and national level, that responsibility for implementation is centralised on the local level, that the plans promote innovation and that the plans are connected to long-term goals and visions. Examples of weaknesses are that neither plan makes use of more hard methods such as regulation, that the Dublin City Plan is not integrated with policy on the global level and that the Stockholm City Plan lacks monitoring systems. Regarding the analytical framework it was concluded that it can be used to analyse city plans rather than metropolitan plans. By testing the framework it was also possible to identify challenges in using the framework and give suggestions on how to improve it, such as by making some of the key attributes of the plan more widely applicable.

<p>Тема&nbsp; докторске&nbsp; дисертације&nbsp; је&nbsp; примена&nbsp; и&nbsp; процена&nbsp; класификационог&nbsp; система&nbsp; локалних климатских&nbsp; зона&nbsp; (ЛКЗ)&nbsp; помоћу&nbsp; аутоматизованог&nbsp; модела&nbsp; и&nbsp; биоклиматских&nbsp; анализа&nbsp; на примеру&nbsp; Новог&nbsp; Сада&nbsp; (Србија).&nbsp; Развијени&nbsp; ГИС&nbsp; модел&nbsp; се&nbsp; показао&nbsp; као&nbsp; адекватан&nbsp; за мапирање и дефинисање&nbsp; ЛКЗ у Новом Саду и његовој околини издвојивши чак 13 ЛКЗ употребом 7&nbsp; параметара градске површине.&nbsp; Осим тога,&nbsp; у&nbsp; оквиру дисертације је приказан и развијен нов модел за чишћење базе података. Добијени&nbsp; резултати&nbsp; су&nbsp; указали&nbsp; да&nbsp; се&nbsp; најизраженије&nbsp; разлике&nbsp; у&nbsp; средњој температури&nbsp; ваздуха&nbsp; (Т_ср)&nbsp; јављају&nbsp; између&nbsp; локалних&nbsp; климатских&nbsp; зона&nbsp; (ЛКЗ)&nbsp; ноћу&nbsp; током топлотног таласа и износе до 5,5 &deg;C (ЛКЗ_2-А, разлика између урбане збијене средњеградње и густе шуме изван града). На годишњем нивоу разлике у Т_ср износе 1,7 &deg;C између града и<br />природне&nbsp; околине,&nbsp; односно&nbsp; 0,7&nbsp; &deg;C&nbsp; унутар&nbsp; различитих&nbsp; градских&nbsp; ЛКЗ.&nbsp; Статистичком анализом&nbsp; средњих&nbsp; максималних&nbsp; и&nbsp; апсолутно&nbsp; максималних&nbsp; температура&nbsp; ваздуха&nbsp; на годишњем,&nbsp; сезонском&nbsp; и&nbsp; месечном&nbsp; нивоу&nbsp; нису&nbsp; уочене&nbsp; знатне&nbsp; разлике&nbsp; између&nbsp; ЛКЗ. Учесталост&nbsp; појаве&nbsp; температурних&nbsp; индекса&nbsp; је&nbsp; указала&nbsp; да&nbsp; тзв.&nbsp; &bdquo;хладни&nbsp; индекси&ldquo;&nbsp; (мразни дани,&nbsp; ледени&nbsp; дани)&nbsp; указују&nbsp; на&nbsp; температурне&nbsp; специфичности&nbsp; ЛКЗ&nbsp; у&nbsp; Новом&nbsp; Саду,&nbsp; док&nbsp; то није&nbsp; евидентно&nbsp; анализом&nbsp; тзв.&nbsp; &bdquo;топлих&nbsp; индекса&ldquo;&nbsp; (летњи&nbsp; дани,&nbsp; тропски&nbsp;&nbsp; дани),&nbsp; изузев тропских&nbsp; ноћи.&nbsp; Анализом&nbsp; релативне&nbsp; влажности&nbsp; ваздуха&nbsp; је&nbsp; уочено&nbsp; да&nbsp; постоје&nbsp; знатне разлике између изграђених и природних ЛКЗ, док то није случај између изг рађених ЛКЗ. У Новом Саду се јавља тзв. &bdquo;урбано&nbsp; острво сувоће&ldquo; ноћу током топлотног таласа када је збијена средњеградња (ЛКЗ 2)&nbsp; окарактерисана са максималним дефицитом влажности од око&nbsp; 33%&nbsp; у&nbsp; односу&nbsp; на&nbsp; природну&nbsp; ЛКЗ&nbsp; А&nbsp; изван&nbsp; града.&nbsp; Статистичка&nbsp; анализа&nbsp; вредности израчунатих&nbsp; биоклиматских&nbsp; индекса&nbsp; PET&nbsp; и&nbsp; UTCI&nbsp; је&nbsp; указала&nbsp; да&nbsp; се&nbsp; ЛКЗ&nbsp; разликују&nbsp; у&nbsp; условима&nbsp; спољњег&nbsp; термалног&nbsp; комфора&nbsp; човека&nbsp; на&nbsp; годишњем,&nbsp; сезонском&nbsp; и&nbsp; месечном нивоу,&nbsp; као&nbsp; и&nbsp; током&nbsp; топлотног&nbsp; и&nbsp; хладног&nbsp; таласа&nbsp; (до&nbsp; максималних&nbsp; 8-9&nbsp; &deg;C).&nbsp; Такође&nbsp; су резултати указали&nbsp; да је класификациони систем&nbsp; ЛКЗ адекватан за интер-урбану анализу градске климе (поређења између градова).</p> / <p>Tema&nbsp; doktorske&nbsp; disertacije&nbsp; je&nbsp; primena&nbsp; i&nbsp; procena&nbsp; klasifikacionog&nbsp; sistema&nbsp; lokalnih klimatskih&nbsp; zona&nbsp; (LKZ)&nbsp; pomoću&nbsp; automatizovanog&nbsp; modela&nbsp; i&nbsp; bioklimatskih&nbsp; analiza&nbsp; na primeru&nbsp; Novog&nbsp; Sada&nbsp; (Srbija).&nbsp; Razvijeni&nbsp; GIS&nbsp; model&nbsp; se&nbsp; pokazao&nbsp; kao&nbsp; adekvatan&nbsp; za mapiranje i definisanje&nbsp; LKZ u Novom Sadu i njegovoj okolini izdvojivši čak 13 LKZ upotrebom 7&nbsp; parametara gradske površine.&nbsp; Osim toga,&nbsp; u&nbsp; okviru disertacije je prikazan i razvijen nov model za čišćenje baze podataka. Dobijeni&nbsp; rezultati&nbsp; su&nbsp; ukazali&nbsp; da&nbsp; se&nbsp; najizraženije&nbsp; razlike&nbsp; u&nbsp; srednjoj temperaturi&nbsp; vazduha&nbsp; (T_sr)&nbsp; javljaju&nbsp; između&nbsp; lokalnih&nbsp; klimatskih&nbsp; zona&nbsp; (LKZ)&nbsp; noću&nbsp; tokom toplotnog talasa i iznose do 5,5 &deg;C (LKZ_2-A, razlika između urbane zbijene srednjegradnje i guste šume izvan grada). Na godišnjem nivou razlike u T_sr iznose 1,7 &deg;C između grada i<br />prirodne&nbsp; okoline,&nbsp; odnosno&nbsp; 0,7&nbsp; &deg;C&nbsp; unutar&nbsp; različitih&nbsp; gradskih&nbsp; LKZ.&nbsp; Statističkom analizom&nbsp; srednjih&nbsp; maksimalnih&nbsp; i&nbsp; apsolutno&nbsp; maksimalnih&nbsp; temperatura&nbsp; vazduha&nbsp; na godišnjem,&nbsp; sezonskom&nbsp; i&nbsp; mesečnom&nbsp; nivou&nbsp; nisu&nbsp; uočene&nbsp; znatne&nbsp; razlike&nbsp; između&nbsp; LKZ. Učestalost&nbsp; pojave&nbsp; temperaturnih&nbsp; indeksa&nbsp; je&nbsp; ukazala&nbsp; da&nbsp; tzv.&nbsp; &bdquo;hladni&nbsp; indeksi&ldquo;&nbsp; (mrazni dani,&nbsp; ledeni&nbsp; dani)&nbsp; ukazuju&nbsp; na&nbsp; temperaturne&nbsp; specifičnosti&nbsp; LKZ&nbsp; u&nbsp; Novom&nbsp; Sadu,&nbsp; dok&nbsp; to nije&nbsp; evidentno&nbsp; analizom&nbsp; tzv.&nbsp; &bdquo;toplih&nbsp; indeksa&ldquo;&nbsp; (letnji&nbsp; dani,&nbsp; tropski&nbsp;&nbsp; dani),&nbsp; izuzev tropskih&nbsp; noći.&nbsp; Analizom&nbsp; relativne&nbsp; vlažnosti&nbsp; vazduha&nbsp; je&nbsp; uočeno&nbsp; da&nbsp; postoje&nbsp; znatne razlike između izgrađenih i prirodnih LKZ, dok to nije slučaj između izg rađenih LKZ. U Novom Sadu se javlja tzv. &bdquo;urbano&nbsp; ostrvo suvoće&ldquo; noću tokom toplotnog talasa kada je zbijena srednjegradnja (LKZ 2)&nbsp; okarakterisana sa maksimalnim deficitom vlažnosti od oko&nbsp; 33%&nbsp; u&nbsp; odnosu&nbsp; na&nbsp; prirodnu&nbsp; LKZ&nbsp; A&nbsp; izvan&nbsp; grada.&nbsp; Statistička&nbsp; analiza&nbsp; vrednosti izračunatih&nbsp; bioklimatskih&nbsp; indeksa&nbsp; PET&nbsp; i&nbsp; UTCI&nbsp; je&nbsp; ukazala&nbsp; da&nbsp; se&nbsp; LKZ&nbsp; razlikuju&nbsp; u&nbsp; uslovima&nbsp; spoljnjeg&nbsp; termalnog&nbsp; komfora&nbsp; čoveka&nbsp; na&nbsp; godišnjem,&nbsp; sezonskom&nbsp; i&nbsp; mesečnom nivou,&nbsp; kao&nbsp; i&nbsp; tokom&nbsp; toplotnog&nbsp; i&nbsp; hladnog&nbsp; talasa&nbsp; (do&nbsp; maksimalnih&nbsp; 8-9&nbsp; &deg;C).&nbsp; Takođe&nbsp; su rezultati ukazali&nbsp; da je klasifikacioni sistem&nbsp; LKZ adekvatan za inter-urbanu analizu gradske klime (poređenja između gradova).</p> / <p>The&nbsp; topic&nbsp; of&nbsp; the&nbsp; doctoral&nbsp; dissertation&nbsp; is&nbsp; the&nbsp; application&nbsp; and&nbsp; assessment&nbsp; of&nbsp; the&nbsp; classification system of local climate zones (LCZ) using the automated model and bioclimatic analysis on the example of Novi Sad (Serbia). The developed GIS model proved to be adequate for&nbsp; mapping and defining LCZs&nbsp; in Novi Sad and its surroundings by&nbsp; delineating&nbsp; 13 LCZs&nbsp; using 7 parameters of the city surface. In addition, in the&nbsp; framework of the dissertation, is&nbsp; developed new&nbsp; model for cleaning the database. The&nbsp; obtained&nbsp; results&nbsp; indicated&nbsp; that&nbsp; the&nbsp; most&nbsp; pronounced&nbsp; differences&nbsp; in&nbsp; mean&nbsp; air temperature (T_sr) occur between LCZs at night during a heat wave and are up to 5.5 &deg; C (LCZ_2-A, the difference between urban compact midrise and dense forests). At annual level, the difference in&nbsp; T_sr&nbsp; is 1.7 &deg;C between the city and the&nbsp; natural environment, and 0.7 &deg;C within different city LCZs. Statistical analysis of mean maximum and absolute maximum air temperatures at&nbsp; annual, seasonal and monthly levels did not show significant differences between&nbsp; LCZs. The frequency of occurrence of temperature indexes indicated that the so-called &quot;cold indices&quot; (cold days, ice days) indicate the temperature specificity of&nbsp; LCZs&nbsp; in Novi&nbsp; Sad, while this is not evident from the&nbsp; analysis&nbsp; of&nbsp; so-called&nbsp; &quot;warm&nbsp; indices&quot;&nbsp; (summer&nbsp; days,&nbsp; tropical&nbsp; days),&nbsp; except&nbsp; for&nbsp; tropical nights.&nbsp; By&nbsp; analyzing&nbsp; the&nbsp; relative&nbsp; humidity&nbsp; of&nbsp; the&nbsp; air&nbsp; it&nbsp; was&nbsp; noticed&nbsp; that&nbsp; there&nbsp; are&nbsp; significant differences between the built-up&nbsp; and natural&nbsp; LCZs, while this is not the case between built-up LCZs. In Novi Sad there is&nbsp; recognized so-called&nbsp; &quot;Urban dryness&nbsp; island&quot; at night during a heat wave period&nbsp; when a compact midrise LCZ 2&nbsp; is characterized with a maximum humidity deficit of about&nbsp; 33% compared to the natural&nbsp; LCZ&nbsp; A outside the city. Statistical analysis of the values of calculated bioclimatic indexes&nbsp; PET and UTCI indicated that&nbsp; LCZs&nbsp; differ in the conditions of the&nbsp; outdoor&nbsp; thermal&nbsp; comfort&nbsp; of&nbsp; population&nbsp; at&nbsp; annual,&nbsp; seasonal&nbsp; and&nbsp; monthly&nbsp; levels&nbsp; as&nbsp; well&nbsp; as during heat and cold waves (up to a maximum of 8-9 &deg; C differences). The results also indicated<br />that&nbsp; the&nbsp; LCZ&nbsp; classification&nbsp; system&nbsp; is&nbsp; adequate&nbsp; for&nbsp; inter-urban&nbsp; analysis&nbsp; of&nbsp; the&nbsp; city&nbsp; climate (comparsions between cities).</p>

Städte sind Hotspots des Globalen Wandels. Sie zählen über ihren Konsum und Ressourcenverbrauch zu den Haupttreibern des Klimawandels, der Biodiversitätskrise und sozio-ökonomischer Prozesse wie Urbanisierung und Demographischer Wandel. Gleichzeitig stellen diese Prozesse insbesondere für Städte eine große Herausforderung dar. Für die Anpassung an den Globalen Wandel spielen städtische Grünflächen als Werkzeug der Stadtplanung eine zentrale Rolle. Parks, Friedhöfe, Gärten, bis hin zu einzelnen Straßenbäumen stellen Ökosystemleistungen bereit, die einerseits, z.B. durch Abmilderung von hohen Temperaturen, die Umweltqualität verbessern und andererseits, z.B. durch die Bereitstellung von Erholungsräumen, einen direkten Einfluss auf das Wohlbefinden und die Aktivitäten der Stadtbevölkerung haben. Jedoch sind auch Grünflächen und deren Ökosystemleistungen, wie die gesamte Stadt an sich, hohen Belastungen durch die Folgen des Globalen Wandels ausgesetzt, z.B. durch Hitze, Trockenheit und Verdichtungsprozesse. Diese kumulative Dissertation zeigt, dass sich Form, Ausstattung und Lage einer Grünfläche unterschiedlich auf die Bereitstellung von verschiedenen Ökosystemleistungen auswirken. Während für die Kühlungsfunktion ein dichter Bestand von ausgewachsenen Bäumen entscheidend ist, spielt für die Erholungsfunktion einer Grünfläche eine ausgewogene Vegetationsstruktur, vielfältige (gebaute) Infrastruktur und eine gute Einbettung in die Umgebung eine zentrale Rolle. Die Arbeit formuliert schließlich Empfehlungen an die Stadtplanung für eine qualitative Aufwertung der Grünflächen im Hinblick auf eine bessere und gerechte Versorgung der Bevölkerung und eine größere Widerstandsfähigkeit gegenüber extremen Wetterereignissen. Eine im Rahmen dieser Arbeit entwickelte und frei zugängliche Online-Kartenanwendung kann dabei als ein unterstützendes Entscheidungsinstrument dienen und zukünftig auf andere Städte übertragen werden. / Cities are hotspots of global change. Through their consumption and resource use, cities are among the main drivers of climate change, the biodiversity crisis and socio-economic processes such as urbanisation and demographic change. At the same time, these processes represent a major challenge for cities. Extreme weather events caused by climate change, such as heat and heavy rain, often occur with greater intensity in densely populated areas and can potentially cause more damage to people and infrastructure there. For adaptation to global change, urban green spaces play a central role as a tool in urban planning. Green spaces or individual street trees provide ecosystem services that can improve, on the one hand, environmental quality, e.g. by mitigating high air temperatures, and, on the other hand, the health and well-being of the urban population, e.g. through the provision of recreational opportunities. However, green spaces and their ecosystem services are also exposed to high pressures from the impacts of global change such as extreme heat, drought and densification processes. This cumulative thesis shows that the form, equipment and location of a green space have different effects on the provision of different ecosystem services. While a dense stand of mature trees is crucial for the cooling function, a balanced vegetation structure, diverse (built) infrastructure and a good embedding in the surroundings play a central role for the recreational function of a green space. Finally, the thesis formulates recommendations for urban planning for a qualitative upgrading of green spaces with regard to a better and equitable provision for the population and a greater resilience to extreme weather events. An open access online map application developed as part of this thesis is intended to serve as a decision support tool and may be transferred to other case studies in the future.