Esta dissertação tem como objeto a análise do impacto da condenação do Brasil pela Corte Interamericana de Direitos Humanos no caso Guerrilha do Araguaia sobre a atuação do Ministério Público Federal na persecução penal das graves violações de direitos humanos ocorridas na ditadura militar no Brasil. Considerando a existência de uma norma global de responsabilização penal individual, verifica-se que a demanda doméstica de responsabilização dos agentes da ditadura foi submetida ao Sistema Interamericano de Direitos Humanos e retornou ao plano doméstico de modo a destravar a atuação institucional do Ministério Público Federal na pauta. Se antes da condenação pela corte internacional havia uma atuação de poucos procuradores, depois da sentença se verifica uma gradual institucionalização da pauta internamente no Ministério Público Federal, que tomou para si a determinação da Corte Interamericana de Direitos Humanos de responsabilização dos agentes da ditadura. O estudo discute a movimentação institucional do Ministério Público Federal na pauta, as teses adotadas pelos procuradores, as vinte e seis ações penais ajuizadas desde 2011, os obstáculos encontrados, a recepção do Judiciário e os desafios para a persecução penal hoje no Brasil. Assim, a dissertação sustenta que o Ministério Público Federal tem tido uma atuação fundamental como ator judicial interno na mobilização do direito internacional dos direitos humanos para fazer avançar a cascata da justiça, configurando-se como um ator central para o processo de justiça de transição no Brasil, que sempre encontrou uma limitação no aspecto da responsabilização penal em razão da Lei de Anistia. / This thesis aims to analyze the impact of Brazil\'s conviction by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights regarding the Araguaia Guerrilla on Federal Prosecution Service\'s (MPF) action, namely in the penal prosecution of gross human rights violations that occurred during Brazil\'s military dictatorship. Bearing in mind the existence of an international law of individual penal responsibility, it was noted that the domestic suit against dictatorship agents was submitted to the Inter-American System of Human Rights; it returned to the domestic sphere as to unlock the institutional action of MPF. Before the international court\'s conviction there was little action in the hands of few prosecutors. After the sentence, one can observe a gradual institutionalization and internalization of this subject in the MPF, which took on the responsibilization of dictatorship agents determined by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. The study discusses the institutional mobilization of MPF in the subject, prosecutors\' legal arguments, the 26 penal suits filed since 2011, obstacles found, Judiciary\'s reception, and challenges of criminal prosecution in Brazil. Hence, this thesis holds that the MPF has been crucial as a domestic judicial actor regarding the use of international human rights law to enforce the justice cascade, posing itself as a core actor for Brazil\'s transitional justice, which has been obstructed by the country\'s Amnesty law.

Les spécificités du contrat de travail impliquent une appréhension particulière de la faute commise par l’employeur à l’égard du salarié. En effet, la faute, définie comme un manquement de l’employeur à ses obligations, semble mal se concilier avec la position de supériorité hiérarchique de ce dernier dans la relation de travail. Ainsi, le concept juridique de faute patronale est très peu utilisé en droit français, contrairement à celui de faute salariale qui fait l’objet d’une classification précise. Pendant très longtemps, le compagnon n’était qu’un simple exécutant de sa prestation de travail et ne pouvait que très rarement invoquer d’obligations à la charge de l’employeur quant à l’exécution de la relation contractuelle. Les nouvelles préoccupations relatives à la santé et à la sécurité des salariés, ainsi que l’irruption des droits de l’ « individu-salarié », ont considérablement changé la donne. En l’absence de réglementation légale, l’étude de la reconnaissance et du régime juridique de la faute de l’employeur nécessite un examen approfondi de la jurisprudence sociale, lequel révèle l’absence d’approche unitaire de la notion. La faute peut engendrer les conséquences classiques de droit contractuel ou entraîner l’application d’un régime exorbitant de droit commun, atypique et non encore parachevé. En réalité, le traitement de la faute dépend étroitement de la nature et de la gravité de l’atteinte portée aux droits ou aux prérogatives du salarié. Il s’agira de s’interroger sur les raisons de ce manque d’uniformité et de tenter d’envisager une catégorisation de la faute, à défaut de pouvoir en établir une classification juridique précise. / The specificities of a contract of employment involve a special assessment of the employer’s fault committed toward his employee. The fault is regarded as a breach of duty and is difficult to reconcile with the hierarchical superiority from the employer to the employee in any work relationship. The legal concept of the fault committed by the employer - as opposed to the well-known and precisely categorized wage-earner’s fault-is quite rare in French labour law. For instance, for decades, a companion was regarded as a simple performer in the work relationship and, as such, could not claim anything from his employer. A huge change came from, on one hand, new safety and health regulations needed to protect employees, and, on the other hand, the breakthtrough of the « employee-as-an-individual » rights. There are at the moment no legal regulations about the employer’s fault. However, the study of the acknowledgment and the legal regime of such a fault leads to scrutinising the labour case law, which eventually shows that the notion has no unity. The employer’s fault can lead to either a classical breach of contract of employment or to an atypical (and yet to be completed) legal regime, extraneous of the French common law. Truly speaking, the assessment of this fault depends on both the nature and the seriousness of the breach of duty regarding the rights of the employee. It seemed difficult to establish a precise legal classification of the employer’s fault. Nonetheless, this work concentrates on the sources of the above-mentionned lack of uniformity and attempts to consider a categorization of the fault.

Sociala medier är en arena där många ungdomar är uppkopplade på stora delar av dygnet. Den nya arenan att umgås på har många fördelar, som till exempel bibehålla och utöka de sociala kontakterna. Samtidigt som det finns fördelar med ungas aktivitet på internet, finns det risker som sömnsvårigheter, internetberoende och internetkränkningar. Studiens syfte är att undersöka ungdomars uppfattning om vad det förekommer för kränkningar på sociala medier och hur ungdomar anser att dessa kränkningar kan förebyggas och motverkas. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats där resultat och analys grundas på tre stycken halvstrukturerade intervjuer i fokusgrupper. Ungdomarna i studien går på en gymnasieskola i en mindre ort i södra Sverige och är i studien anonyma. Vi har använt oss av symbolisk interaktionism som teoretisk referensram, där definitionen av situationen, social interaktion, symboler och tonvikt på aktivitet är våra teoretiska begrepp. Studiens resultat visar att kränkande bilder och kränkande kommentarer om personers sexuella läggning, politiska åsikt och utseende är de mest förekommande kränkningarna på sociala medier. Det har visat sig vara ett hårt klimat på sociala medier och att kränkningar sker öppet, framförallt på de sociala medierna där användarna kan vara anonyma. Ungdomarna anser att ett av flera sätt att förebygga dessa kränkningar skulle vara genom ökad förståelse och kontinuerliga diskussioner bland vuxna och ungdomar. / The social media center is a platform where most of the young people are online a considerable time of their freetime. The new arena to socialize has many advantages, such as containing and exploring the social life. At the same time there are benefits with the huge activity on the internet. There are also plenty of risks such as sleep disorders, internet addiction and internet violations. The purpose of the study is to examine the youth's perception of what kind of violations there are on the social media center and how they may be prevented and inhibited. The study has a qualitative approach where our results and analysis are based on three semistructured life-world interviews in form of focus groups. The young people of the study attend a secondary school in a smaller town in southern Sweden and are anonymous in the study. We have used the symbolic interactionism as a theoretical reference framework, where the "definition of the situation", "social interaction", "symbols" and "emphasis on activity" are our theoretical concepts. The results of our study show that offensive images and offensive comments about the sexual orientation, political opinion and appearance are the most common violations of social media. It has been shown to be a hard climate on social media and that violations can be seen openly, especially in social media where users can be anonymous. The young participants of the study believe that one of several ways to prevent these violations are through better understanding and continuous discussion among adults and teenagers.

In this ethnographic study of “Volvo greasers” [Volvoraggare] in a peri-urban community in Sweden, risk-taking practices with motor vehicles, such as speeding and drifting, are explored and analyzed in relation to age, gender, class and place. Young men’s risk-taking with motor vehicles regularly generates public debate as a traffic safety issue, often resulting in various policy suggestions, such as curfews or raising of the driving licence age. Seldom are these suggested solutions based on critical ethnographic research where intersections of age, gender, class and place are highlighted. The study is based on ethnographic fieldwork, that is, participant observation, and informal and formal interviews, with greaser men and women between the ages of 15 and 19, as well as formal interviews with pupils at the local high school and with youth centre staff in the local community. The study has two overarching aims. The first is empirical: to make visible an under-studied area of contemporary youth culture in Sweden – the (Volvo) greasers. In order to understand how the greasers’ risk-taking with vehicles is manifested, talked about and practised, the thesis critically engages with the contexts of the risk-taking practices and their effects at both the material and the discursive levels. The second aim is theoretical. Through contextualization as an analytical tool, a theoretical contribution of the thesis is the development of a situated concept of risk‐taking. The thesis illustrates how intersecting norms and conceptions around age, gender, class and place are practised at the local level, thus highlighting the social character of risk--‐taking practices. A central analytical notion is the greasers’ negotiation of place, developed through the concept of spatial boredom, which affects their construction of personhood and their social practices. In light of this, the thesis suggests that situated risk-taking with motor vehicles benefit from being formulated as violations, which furthers the understanding of young people’s risk-taking practices with motor vehicles and paves the way for more multi-faceted discussions in theory, as well as in practice and policy-making around traffic safety. / I denna etnografiska studie av "Volvoraggare" i ett stadsnära samhälle i Sverige undersöks risktagande praktiker med motorfordon, såsom fortkörning och sladdande, och analyseras i förhållande till ålder, kön, klass och plats. Unga mäns risktagande med motorfordon genererar ofta offentlig debatt som en trafiksäkerhetsfråga, vilket har resulterat i olika politiska förslag som t.ex. utegångsförbud eller höjning av körkortsåldern. Sällan är dessa föreslagna lösningar baserade på kritisk etnografisk forskning där intersektioner av ålder, kön, klass och plats studeras. Studien är baserad på etnografiskt fältarbete, det vill säga deltagande observation och informella och formella intervjuer med unga raggare, män och kvinnor, i åldern 15 till 19, samt intervjuer med elever från det lokala högstadiet och med personal på den lokala fritidsgården. Studien har två övergripande syften. Det första syftet med studien är empiriskt: att synliggöra ett understuderat område av samtida ungdomskultur i Sverige --‐ (Volvo) raggare. För att förstå hur raggarnas risktagande med fordon manifesteras, talas om och praktiseras, diskuterar avhandlingen kontexten för och effekterna av de risktagande praktikerna på materiell och diskursiv nivå. Det andra syftet är teoretiskt. Med hjälp av kontextualisering som ett analytiskt verktyg är ett av avhandlingens teoretiska bidrag en vidareutveckling av risktagande som ett situerat begrepp. Avhandlingen visar hur normer och föreställningar kring ålder, kön, klass och plats praktiseras på lokal nivå och belyser därmed de risktagande praktikernas sociala karaktär. Ett centralt analytiskt begrepp för att förstå raggarnas förhandling med plats är rumslig tristess, vilket påverkar deras konstruktion av personskap och deras sociala praktiker. Mot bakgrund av detta föreslår avhandlingen att situerat risktagande med motorfordon bör omformuleras som kränkningar, vilket ytterligare skulle utveckla förståelsen av ungdomars risktagande praktiker med motorfordon och bana väg för en mer mångfacetterad diskussion inom såväl teori som inom trafiksäkerhetspraktik och ‐politik.

LL.M. (International Law) / Please refer to full text to view abstract.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether publicly disclosed violations by U.S corporations, resulting in convictions or settlements, erode shareholder investment in the offending organizations. This study was designed to assess whether or not the shareholders' reactions to corporations' violations were related to a decline in organizations' stock valuations across sectors. In addition, this study attempted to assess whether or not shareholder support, expressed by stock prices, declined more after a corporation was prosecuted or reached a settlement for violations, as compared to corporations that disclosed earnings disappointments. Also, this study investigated the stock prices of violating corporations compared to the non-offending corporations from within the same business sector, as well as considered the percentage decline for repeat offenders for violation two compared to violation one. Opposite to hypothesis, results showed that stock prices for the violating companies were significantly greater 12 months after the violation compared to the other months and no significant differences in percent decline between the eight sectors on any of the five decline measures. There were also no differences between violating companies and their matched companies. Companies with a violation had significantly greater stock prices overall than those without a violation.

"Ideally, peacekeeping operations demonstrate the concern of the international community in situations of instability or conflict arising between or within states. They are conceived to bring about peace and 'ensure the effective promotion and protection of [human] rights'. As a result, peacekeeping operations as well as peacekeepers are expected to comply with standards of human rights and humanitarian law. With respect to the Economic Community of West African States Cease-Fire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), its intervention in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte d'Ivoire have been generally welcomed as a response to barbaric and devastating wars in West Africa. However, the observation of ECOMOG missions reveals several instances of violations of human rights and humanitarian law committed by ECOMOG peacekeepers. These violations include attacks against civilians, summary executions, rapes, torture, looting, etc. In other words, the saviours have turned into violators of rights. While these violations have provoked concern and indignation, few measures have been taken to address the problem, hold peacekeepers accountable and prevent abuses in the future. ... This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter one provides, among other, the background of the study, the statement of the research problem and the significance of the study. Chapter two gives an insight into the creation, structure, mechanisms and evolution of ECOMOG as the peacekeeping organ of ECOWAS. Chapter three examines the basis for the applicability of human rights and international humanitarian law to peacekeepers and shows the violations committed by the ECOMOG peacekeepers since 1990. Chapter four analyses the responses to abuses committed by ECOMOG peacekeepers. It discusses the national, regional and universal responses to these abuses. It investigates both prevention and accountability mechanisms existing to address abuses committed by ECOMOG peacekeepers. It also explores some potential accountability and prevention mechanisms. Finally, chapter five makes some concluding remarks and suggests specific recommendations for the improvement of the existing responses." -- Introduction. / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2004. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

"This work is arranged into six chapters. Beyond the introduction, chapter two highlights atrocities of the war and evaluates the diplomacy process, which eventually resulted in the creation of the TRC. It briefly examines the Abidjan and Conakry Peace Plan and specifically elaborates on the Lome Peace Accord, which finally culminated in the promulgation of the Truth and Reconciliation Act of 2000. The human rights and humanitarian law dimension of the conflict will also be addressed. Chapter three gives a general description of truth commissions and analyse the TRC with specific refernce to its structure, function, jurisdiction, mandate, proceedings, evidence, and its investigative methods, which is the backbone of the Truth Commission. It will aslo assess whether naming names would be a potent tool for the Commission to bring perpetrators to shame. From a human rights perspective chapter four address issues such as healing and reconciliation, truth, forgiveness, and assesses whether they are effective remedies for human rights violations. The issue of amnesty, especially Article IX of the Lome Peace Accord, will be evaluated. This chapter will also discuss the issue of impunity. Chapter five deliberates on the relationship between tribunals and truth commissions generally and specifically elaborate on the TRC and the Special Court with specific reference to their legal framework, composition, jurisdiction, information sharing, and whether both institutions serve as accountability mechanisms. Chapter six concludes the dissertation by determining whether or not there are any lessons one can learn from the Commission. It closes by making recommendations for the smooth functioning of the Commission and how it can effectively contribute to the needs of traumatised societies." -- Chapter 1. / Prepared under the supervision of Dr. Jean Allain at the Department of Political Sciences, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, the American University in Cairo, Egypt / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2003. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

Most optimisation problems in everyday life are not static in nature, have multiple objectives and at least two of the objectives are in conflict with one another. However, most research focusses on either static multi-objective optimisation (MOO) or dynamic singleobjective optimisation (DSOO). Furthermore, most research on dynamic multi-objective optimisation (DMOO) focusses on evolutionary algorithms (EAs) and only a few particle swarm optimisation (PSO) algorithms exist. This thesis proposes a multi-swarm PSO algorithm, dynamic Vector Evaluated Particle Swarm Optimisation (DVEPSO), to solve dynamic multi-objective optimisation problems (DMOOPs). In order to determine whether an algorithm solves DMOO efficiently, functions are required that resembles real world DMOOPs, called benchmark functions, as well as functions that quantify the performance of the algorithm, called performance measures. However, one major problem in the field of DMOO is a lack of standard benchmark functions and performance measures. To address this problem, an overview is provided from the current literature and shortcomings of current DMOO benchmark functions and performance measures are discussed. In addition, new DMOOPs are introduced to address the identified shortcomings of current benchmark functions. Guides guide the optimisation process of DVEPSO. Therefore, various guide update approaches are investigated. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis of DVEPSO is conducted to determine the influence of various parameters on the performance of DVEPSO. The investigated parameters include approaches to manage boundary constraint violations, approaches to share knowledge between the sub-swarms and responses to changes in the environment that are applied to either the particles of the sub-swarms or the non-dominated solutions stored in the archive. From these experiments the best DVEPSO configuration is determined and compared against four state-of-the-art DMOO algorithms. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Computer Science / unrestricted

The study examines SA‟s human rights diplomacy in Africa and the selected countries, namely Libya, Nigeria, the Sudan and Zimbabwe during the presidencies of Presidents Mandela and Mbeki. When SA decided to follow an ethics based foreign policy, especially in the area of human rights, it joined a number of countries who had adopted a similar approach such the United States of America, the Netherlands and Australia. These countries have an established history of human rights diplomacy which is supported by institutional and policy frameworks. The study argues that although both presidents were committed to a human rights oriented foreign policy, due to constraints that they faced in the continent human rights issues were not consistently and concertedly pursued by them, especially following SA‟s 1995 engagement with Nigeria during the term of the Sani Abacha government. These constraints led to a major shift in SA‟s human rights diplomacy. This shift entailed a move away from unilateral action to reliance on multilateral forums to deal with human rights challenges; the development of continental norms and standards, as well as strengthening continental structures; and conflict resolution and post-conflict reconstruction and development in Africa. This shift became evident in the content of Departmental strategic plans, and reporting both internally and externally to oversight structures such as Parliament. Hardly any proactive plans were developed to address human rights issues in any of the individual countries. Reporting to Parliament also focused on developments at a multilateral level both at the UN and AU with little coverage of human rights issues in individual countries. The use of multilateral bodies such as the SADC to address human rights issues became more pronounced, the Zimbabwean crisis being the case in point. Despite the merits of the collective approach, its value is diminished if it is undertaken to the exclusion of bilateral engagements by South African diplomats in specific countries or if gross human rights violations are not raised in multilateral bodies. Similarly, the significance of the normative framework and requisite structures cannot be doubted, but because the results of these initiatives are only realisable in the medium to long term, this approach needs to be buttressed by bilateral diplomatic engagements. During the period from 1994 to 2008, SA also engaged in a number of conflict resolution and post-conflict reconstruction and development initiatives. These interventions averted human rights violations by securing peace as well as facilitating the development of constitutional and related frameworks to ensure the protection of human rights in the affected states. In conclusion, with the exception of Nigeria, SA hardly intervened on its own to intercede on behalf of victims of civil and political rights violations in any of the four states covered by the study. Its approach undermined its commitment to promote and protect human rights in the African continent. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2015 / Political Sciences / MA / Unrestricted