An important aspect of sustainable development is the social impacts from the consumption of goods and services. A recently developed method for social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) assesses the potential positive and negative social impacts along a product’s life cycle, while avoiding shifting negative impacts from one part of the supply chain to another. This thesis evaluated the applicability of S-LCA in three case studies, as well as a way of introducing an ethical perspective on the distribution of social impacts among stakeholders. The case study of laptop computers identified workers and the local community as the stakeholders at greatest risk of negative social impacts, with China, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Thailand and Brazil being most prone to these impacts. A case study of vehicle fuels identified some fossil and some renewable fuels with high or very high risks of negative impacts, suggesting a need for strict procurement requirements on social performance for all types of vehicle fuels. A study of e-waste recycling in Pakistan revealed negative social impacts on workers and the community, while decreasing poverty by providing employment. By performing a social hotspot assessment using S-LCA methodology, much can be learned about the potential social impacts associated with a product’s life cycle, and potentially important aspects that would otherwise have been neglected can be identified. Some methodological issues of S-LCA requiring further attention are: Indicator relevance. Impact pathways between indicators and performance assessment on social issues must be examined and improved. Aggregation and weighting of impacts and indicators. With major uncertainties still present, results must be transparent, but also aggregated for the purposes of interpretation and communication. Assessment of the use phase. To be more complete, S-LCA methodology needs to be complemented with an assessment of the use phase. Introduction of context. Identifying the context of relevant stakeholders in different parts of the life cycle would allow identification of the greatest leverage in improvement of social conditions. / En viktig del av hållbar utveckling är att hantera social påverkan från konsumtionen av varor och tjänster. Social livscykelanalys (S - LCA) är en metod som syftar till att bedöma positiv och negativ social påverkan av produkter under hela deras livscykel och samtidigt undvika att bara flytta negativ påverkan från en del av livscykeln till en annan. Denna avhandling utvärderar S - LCA i tre fallstudier, samt undersöker hur fördelningen av den sociala påverkan på olika intressentgrupper kan bedömas ur ett etiskt perspektiv. I en fallstudie som utfördes på en laptop identifierades arbetstagare och lokalsamhället som de intressenter, som löper störst risk för negativ social påverkan. Länder som Kina, Ryssland, Saudiarabien, Thailand och Brasilien var de som var mest kopplade till denna påverkan. En fallstudie kring fordonsbränslen visade att av de bränslen som bedömts uppvisade både en del fossila och en del förnybara bränslen höga eller mycket höga risker för negativ social påverkan, vilket tyder på att strikta upphandlingskrav gällande social prestanda behövs för alla typer av drivmedel. En studie av återvinning av elektroniskt avfall i Pakistan uppvisade påtaglig negativ social påverkan på arbetstagarna och lokalsamhället, samtidigt som återvinningen gav sysselsättning som minskar fattigdomen. Genom att använda S-LCA vid bedömningen av en produkt finns det mycket att lära om potentiell social påverkan från produktens livscykel. Viktiga aspekter, som annars riskerar att missas, kan nu identifieras med S-LCA. Metoden är dock inte färdigutvecklad, och metodfrågor som behöver ytterligare uppmärksamhet är: Relevanta indikatorer. Kopplingen mellan indikatorerna och den påverkan man försöker mäta måste undersökas närmare och förbättras. Sätt att aggregera och väga ihop påverkan. Med tanke på de osäkerheter som ännu så länge finns kring metoden måste resultaten hållas transparenta, samtidigt som sammanfattande resultat behövs för tolkning och kommunikation. Påverkan i användningsfasen. För att bli mer komplett, måste metoden kompletteras med en bedömning av social påverkan i användningsfasen. Sätta resultaten i sitt sammanhang. Utgångsläget för dem, som berörs av en produkts sociala påverkan avgör vilken hävstångseffekt en förbättring av de sociala förhållandena kan ha, och kan därmed påverka vilka åtgärder som bör prioriteras. / <p>QC 20131217</p>

<p dir="ltr">The race to comply with the Paris Climate Accords fueled by the desire to combat climate change and a greater appreciation of balance of ecological systems requires reducing reliance on fossil fuels and transitioning to using clean energy. This transition is expected to be cleaner but be also material intensive. These materials, such as neodymium or graphite, have been deemed critical by the United States, due to their importance to future of the country. Therefore, efforts are being made to diversify their production (by discovering new manufacturing methods) or improve the material efficiency of their applications.</p><p dir="ltr">It is important that these new applications are analyzed for their environmental impact. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is widely accepted methodology for conducting environmental assessment on products and processes. Traditional LCA has 4 steps – goal, scope definition, life cycle inventory, and life cycle impact analysis. Applying traditional LCA techniques on these emerging technologies has challenges, as they are still emerging and have demonstrated their potential at various scales – theoretical, lab scale, pilot scale, or small-scale industrial level. Often, the new processes or products are compared against existing conventional manufacturing methods. Therefore, to appropriately assess the impact of these new emerging technologies against current ones, the scope must be extended to include the product or manufacturing system (which is the economic system under which these technologies will operate and compete against). This methodology is applied to 3 technologies at various stages of their development.</p><p dir="ltr">In the first case study, for magnets, by including the importance of energy product to the product system within the LCA, we see that the higher energy product of additively manufactured magnets directly translates to its environmental benefits relative to injection molded magnets. The next case study looked at a novel process to create battery grade graphite, demonstrated at lab scale. This process was scaled to an industrial level and assessed against conventional methods of manufacturing graphite. The scaleup allowed the LCA to identify the molten salt and the graphite anode to be a potential hotspot. Lastly, the potential green marketability of aluminum cerium alloys is investigated. The product system is extended to include the effect of this new application on cerium compound prices and therefore the economic allocation for the LCA. A Nash equilibrium is found based on market dynamics for aluminum cerium alloys to help resolve this issue.</p><p dir="ltr">The case studies show that allowing the product systems to inform the LCA can result in richer results, which help identify hotspots or opportunities for these technologies as they mature and compete against the conventional products or processes.</p>

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Commercial cultivation of switchgrass in Ontario is limited mainly due to inadequate market opportunities. However, recent developments in bioproducts identify switchgrass as a promising biomass crop for bioenergy and biomaterials applications. At present assessment of environmental impact of growing switchgrass in Ontario is lacking. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the energy use and environmental impacts of switchgrass biomass production in Ontario through life cycle assessment. Cradle to farm gate life cycle assessment was conducted following the ISO 14040/14044 guidelines. Life cycle inventory data were collected from farmers, experts and available literature. Life cycle impact assessment was conducted for energy use and environmental impact using the SimaPro software. Life cycle processes related to fertilization, harvesting and soil N emission were identified as major hot spots for energy and environmental impacts. Improving efficiency of energy, inputs and biomass yield will reduce the environmental burden associated with growing switchgrass in Ontario. / OMAFRA- UofG Highly Qualified schlorship programme and OMAFRA- UofG Partnership bioeconomy industrial uses reaserch theme project funding.

Growing concerns regarding the impact of fossil fuel use upon the environment and the cost of production have led to a growth in the interest of obtaining energy from biomass. 1st and 2nd generation biomass types, however, are often criticised for their high energy requirements and environmental impacts. Algal biomass is considered a 3rd generation biomass which does not require arable land for cultivation, typically has a high productivity and can be converted to a wide variety of energy carriers. Despite research on the concept of producing energy from algal biomass dating back to the 1960s there has been limited commercial development and the environmental advantages are still in doubt. This thesis investigated the potential of algal biomass as a source of bioenergy feedstock by considering the cultivation and processing of localised species of algae and applying life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology to algal biofuel production systems. Experiments were conducted to examine the productivity of a wild algal species in wastewater and the potential recoverable bioenergy yields. The LCA studies drew together data from external studies, commercial databases, industrial reports and experimental work to assess the environmental impacts and the energy balance for each system considered. The thesis investigated the generation of biofuel from both freshwater algal biomass and marine algal biomass. For both cases, the current state of research was examined and the gaps determined. Existing studies suggest the high intensity of microalgal biomass production (fertiliser requirements, high energy harvesting) greatly reduces the overall sustainability. Part of this thesis therefore investigated the possibility of a low input system of microalgal cultivation. A recommended approach was suggested using local species cultivated in wastewater as the nutrient source and a conversion strategy based on the characteristics of the dominant species. The practicality and effectiveness of cultivating and processing locally grown algal biomass under low input conditions was determined by experiments that were conducted in the laboratory. Algal biomass was collected locally and cultivated in the laboratory using agricultural effluent as the nutrient source. The productivity of the algae was monitored alongside the uptake of nutrients. The effluent provided a good media for the cultivation of the wild algae and the nitrogen and phosphorous loading of the effluent was reduced by as much as 98% for NH4+ and 90% for PO4³-. The algal biomass was also tested for its potential as a feedstock for bioethanol production as well as biochar alongside pyrolysis oils and gases. Compared to alternative biomass types tested, the algal biomass appeared to be a good candidate for bioethanol production providing a 38% recovery of bioethanol. The biomass appeared a less favourable substrate for energy recovery from pyrolysis but this process could be considered for carbon biofixation. The sustainability of incorporating microalgal cultivation in wastewater treatment was tested by conducting a life cycle assessment of a large scale system. The life cycle assessment used Haifa wastewater treatment plant in Israel as a case study. The study compared algal cultivation with energy recovery to conventional nutrient removal (A2O process) for enhanced nutrient removal within the wastewater treatment plant. It was found that the use of algal ponds for nutrient removal compared favourably to conventional treatment under specific conditions. These conditions were: the algal biomass is converted to both biodiesel and biogas and the algal biomass is converted to biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas. In these cases the energy balance was greater and the global warming potential and eutrophication potential were less. The conventional nutrient removal was, however, found to be the better method in terms of the acidification potential. Despite being the favourable method of nutrient removal the cultivation and processing of algae relies upon several key assumptions: high year round growth of algae, no contamination and access to a high land area for the cultivation ponds. The sustainability of recovering bioenergy from the cultivation of macroalgae was also tested. A life cycle assessment was conducted investigating the energy return on investment and six environmental impacts for three cultivation methods and three process streams to convert the biomass to bioenergy. Cultivation and processing in Chile was used as a case study due to the depth of knowledge and availability of data. The cultivation scenarios were: bottom cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis, the long line cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis and the long line cultivation of Macrocystis pyrifera. The processing streams were: bioethanol, biogas and both bioethanol and biogas. Most of the data used in the life cycle assessment was obtained from studies conducted in Chile and from communication with local fisherman. It was found that the bottom cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis and conversion to bioethanol and biogas produced the best energy return on investment (2.95) and was most beneficial in terms of the environmental impacts considered. Alternative circumstances were also considered which included new research (untested on a large scale) related to the value used for productivity and conversion of the biomass. This analysis indicated that an EROI of 10.3 could be achieved for the long-line cultivation of Macrocystis pyrifera and conversion to bioethanol and biogas alongside very limited environmental impacts. This result relies, however, upon favourable assumptions that have not yet been proven on a large scale. The work conducted in this thesis highlights the potential of recovering energy from algal biomass. The experimental work and life cycle analysis of freshwater algal cultivation demonstrates the importance of using wastewater treatment as added value to the system. Maximising energy recovery by using a combination of conversion techniques was also shown to be key in providing the most sustainable solution. The sustainability of energy produced from macroalgae was established as being preferable to several conventional energy sources. Innovative methods to improve the system were also shown to greatly enhance the concept.

LCA was used to compare the environmental impacts of two different passenger tubs being designed for the GO-4 vehicle. Based on the results, the adoption of biomaterials clearly displays many benefits. / May 2017

This portfolio of published research contains nine papers and assesses the life cycle environmental burdens of energy technologies and buildings. Several analytical tools were used but these all fall under the umbrella of environmental life cycle assessment (LCA), and include energy analysis, carbon appraisal and the consideration of other environmental issues. The life cycle of all products starts with an assessment of embodied impacts. The current author has completed significant research on the embodied carbon of materials. This includes the creation of a leading embodied carbon database (the ICE database) for materials which has been downloaded by over 10,000 professionals and has made a significant contribution to knowledge. This portfolio of work includes analysis on methods for recycling in embodied impact assessment and LCA. This is an influential topic and therefore appears in two of the publications. The ICE database was applied by the current author to over 40 domestic building case studies and an embodied carbon model for buildings was created from these. The latter was used to provide benchmark values for six types of new houses in the UK.The portfolio of work then progresses to full LCA of energy systems. LCA is used to assess the embodied impacts versus operational impacts of 11 kV electrical cables. In this case embodied impacts were not significant and preference should be given to reducing electrical losses in the cables. The tool of LCA was then applied to a national electricity network. It revealed that Lebanon had a particularly poor centralised electricity network that was both unreliable and unsustainable with high impacts in all environmental categories. The final paper in this portfolio is on Building Integrated PV (BIPV) and brings together all aspects of the current author’s work and knowledge. It considers embodied burdens, electricity generation and BIPV can replace roofing materials.

Energy use and the environment are inextricably linked and form a key role in concerns over sustainability. All methods of energy production involve resource uncertainties and environmental impacts. A clear example of this is the use of fossil fuels which present three main problems, being: finite resources; significant contribution to environmental pollution; and reliance on imports. Hence there is a clear need to reduce the use of fossil fuels for energy. Bioenergy has the potential to both displace fossil fuels, and reduce the effect of climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide during the production of biomass. It is also possible that bioenergy can reduce the UK’s dependence on energy imports and boost the rural economy. This thesis provides an interdisciplinary assessment of bioenergy production in the UK. Due to the complexities of bioenergy systems several appraisal methods have been used. An initial study examined the barriers to and drivers for UK bioenergy development as a whole. It was found that for projects to be successful, bioenergy schemes need to be both economically attractive and environmentally sustainable. A biomass resource assessment was then completed using the South West of England as a case study. This demonstrates that bioenergy can make a useful contribution to the UK’s energy supply, due to the diverse range of biomass feedstocks currently available. However a range of barriers and constraints will need to be overcome if the UK is to reach its bioenergy potential. To assess the potential environmental impacts of bioenergy production different case studies were selected. Life cycle assessment is widely regarded as one of the best methodologies for the evaluation of burdens associated with bioenergy production. This was applied, alongside net energy analysis, to a small-scale biomass gasification plant which uses wood waste as a feedstock. As an alternative biomass source, the perennial energy crops Miscanthus and Willow were also assessed. Several different scenarios of biomass cultivation, transportation, and energy conversion were then compared, to assess the potential environmental impacts. Biomass gasification offers good potential for reducing fossil fuel use and climate change impacts. Nonetheless embodied energy in the construction phase can be high and other impacts such as particulate emissions, ecotoxicity and land use can be important. Therefore environmental benefits are maximised when both electricity and heat are utilised together, and when waste is used as feedstock. The ultimate applicability of biomass gasification is restricted by the quantity of feedstocks that can be made available for conversion. Perennial energy crops offer several advantages over annual crops including more positive energy balances and reduced agro-chemical inputs. However their cultivation needs to be carefully sited to avoid issues of land use change and the displacement of food crops. This study shows that each bioenergy production pathway needs to be assessed using a range of appraisal techniques, which include: biomass resource assessment, technical and economic feasibility, life cycle assessment and net energy analysis. It concludes that biomass gasification CHP offers an alternative to fossil fuel generation but more technical knowledge is required in the UK if it is to become widely used for biomass energy.

In 2008, the UK Government enforced the target to reduce the UK carbon account for the year 2050 to at least 80% less than the 1990 baseline. In order to meet this ambitious target it is widely thought that the UK energy future should be ‘electrified’ as a suite of low carbon generation technologies provide ever increasing proportions of electricity supply. This work has identified and investigated two technologies that could make significant contributions to low carbon power supply in the UK; that of industrial combined heat and power, CHP, and tidal power. Life cycle case studies were completed on an existing UK CHP plant and the Severn Barrage scheme as it was proposed until 2010. The Severn Barrage assessment has shown that the lifetime environmental impact is dominated by the operation stage. This is contrary to previously published studies, which have underestimated (Parsons Brinckerhoff Ltd; Black and Veatch Ltd; 2010)(Roberts 1982)(Spevack, Jones and Hammond 2011) or even ignored (Black & Veatch 2007)(Woollcombe-Adams, Watson and Shaw 2009)the contribution from this life stage. Furthermore, the results have demonstrated that the impact intensity of power from the Barrage is almost entirely reliant on that of the National Grid mix which provides the operational power required. It has been shown a large improvement to the impact of the operation stage can be made by removing the electricity demand for ‘flood pumping’. However, even without ‘flood pumping’, the impact of the power demand for plant operation will dominate. Hence the greatest improvements to the schemes lifetime impact can be made via the National Grid mix itself. The industrial CHP assessment has shown that there are large impact savings available from widespread implementation against the current and the baseline National Grid mixes. However, even if it is assumed that units are exclusively bio-gas fuelled, the carbon intensity of the power generated is very likely to exceed that of the low carbon Grid mix by 2050. The discussion shows that the interactive roles that these two technologies could play, with each other and the evolving Grid mix, on the pathway to 2050 is, however, more complex than simply considering the isolated impact intensity. The commissioning of the Severn Barrage could mark the point at which the carbon intensity of the National Grid falls below that of CHP. However because the carbon intensity of the plant is reliant on the national power supply, it is argued that further CHP implementation should only be stopped if there is a suitable low carbon and low impact alternative that can fill the capacity gap. This thesis concludes that to fear that today’s CHP schemes could represent a technology ‘lock-in’ in the long term future is to underestimate the role the technology has in the current and more short term future Grid mix. The work presented demonstrates the importance of life cycle thinking in the development of a low impact energy strategy. The discussion has also shown the importance of scenarios in assessing the requirements for such an ambitious change. The pursuit of change implies that the future is necessarily dynamic. The work has illustrated that scenario thinking allows exploration of potential strategy decisions and hence, is essential to having confidence in the decisions made.