Studies examining descriptive norms in the activity area have demonstrated that an individual’s perceptions of others’ behaviour were related to (Priebe & Spink, 2011; Spink, Crozier, & Robinson, 2013), and influenced (Priebe & Spink, 2012, 2014) individual behaviour. Guided by focus theory of normative conduct (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990), the purposes of the studies examined in this thesis were three-fold: (1) to assess whether norms are related to an intention that is not a direct reflection of the norm, (2) to add to the examination of the relationship between norms and self-reported activity to include both descriptive (i.e., perceptions about others’ behaviour) and injunctive (i.e., perceptions about others’ approval) norms, and (3) to use a construct from another theory (i.e., positive outcome expectations from social cognitive theory, Bandura, 1986) to strengthen the predictions from focus theory of normative conduct to individual’s physical activity. In Study 1, which was concurrent in design, the relationship between descriptive norms reflecting prosocial behaviour and an individual’s intention to return to the group in youth sport camp participants was examined. A positive relationship emerged wherein individuals were more likely to intend to return to their group in the future when they also perceived that more group members provided encouragement, congratulations, positive and constructive feedback (i.e., prosocial) to other group members. Study 2 was an experimental field study, where the influence of normative (descriptive, injunctive) and non-normative (personal, team) motivational messages on self-reported frequency of maximal effort in adult volleyball athletes was examined. Individuals exposed to the normative messages about others exerting effort reported significantly higher frequencies of maximal effort compared to those exposed to messages highlighting personal reasons for exerting effort (i.e., to improve athletic ability). However, no differences emerged between normative messages about the effort levels of others and those who received messages about working hard for the team. In Study 3, an online experimental study, exposure to messages differing in levels of descriptive norms and positive outcome expectations was examined in relation to the exercise patterns of university students during a final exam period. All students reported decreases in their activity from their typical levels during the exam period. However, between-group differences emerged between the two groups exposed to the message that many others were active during exams (high descriptive norm). When that message was coupled with a high positive outcome expectation, individuals reported significantly greater levels of moderate and vigorous physical activity than when the normative message was accompanied with a low positive outcome expectation. Results from these three studies suggested the following: (1) a descriptive norm surrounding one class of behaviours related to an individual’s perceptions regarding an intention to return in the future to that setting, (2) normative messages influenced an individual’s perceptions of how often he/she exerted maximum effort more than non-normative personal messages in sport, and (3) a message highlighting that many others were active during an exam period (high descriptive norm) influenced self-reported individual physical activity differently depending on the level (high, low) of positive outcome expectation provided.

No description available.

Physical activity is a powerful modifiable lifestyle factor that reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in adults through favorable changes in conventional risk factors including serum lipids, blood pressure and glycemia. Recent evidence suggests that the cardioprotective effects of physical activity may also be mediated through beneficial effects on vascular function, in particular arterial stiffness. While the beneficial effects of physical activity in CVD risk in adults are irrefutable, data in youth are limited, especially for arterial stiffness. Purpose: The purpose of this project is to explore the continuous association between physical activity and arterial stiffness in youth. Hypothesis: We hypothesized that physical activity is negatively associated with arterial stiffness, whereby highly active youth would display lesser degrees of arterial stiffness than their less active (sedentary) peers. Methods: 485 youth (12-13 yrs) were recruited from the 1995 Manitoba birth cohort involved in the GreatICE asthma and allergy study. Youth were stratified into tertiles (high, medium, low) of self-reported physical activity. Global cardiometabolic risk was determined from a composite score of conventional risk factors including, LDL, SBP, Insulin, Glucose and Triglycerides. Arterial stiffness was assessed non-invasively using conventional pulse wave analysis and velocity. Results: Of the 485 youth who participated in this wave of the study, measures of PWV and PWA were available on 357 and 335 youth respectively. Cardiometabolic risk decreased with increasing levels of vigorous physical activity. Neither measure of arterial stiffness was associated with physical activity. Conclusion: Increased vigorous physical activity is associated with reduced cardiometabolic risk in youth independent of arterial stiffness.

The problem under investigation in this mixed-methods study is the relationship between a morning physical activity intervention and subsequent student engagement in academic activities in an elementary school. The physical activity intervention was a fifteen minute period of hall walking and gym running for the entire school population at 9:05 a.m. The study participants included four randomly selected students in each of seven classrooms. Teachers and an educational assistant observed and recorded the students' levels of engagement at the same time period for eight consecutive school days without the morning physical activity followed by ten days with the physical activity. Interviews were also conducted with the teacher and educational assistant to provide more detailed information from their observations. Quantitative data analysis using a one-tailed paired t-test resulted in a finding of statistical significance. Qualitative data analysis also demonstrated increases in observed engaged behaviours after the activity condition. The merged data suggested that morning physical activity may result in increased engagement in subsequent academic activities.

Early menopause, the cessation of menstrual function before age 45, occurs in 10% of women, and is associated with higher premature mortality and increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Lifestyle factors like physical activity may influence menopause timing, but results from prior research are inconsistent. We evaluated the association between physical activity and the occurrence of early natural menopause in the Nurses’ Health Study II. Premenopausal women were followed prospectively from 1989 to 2011. Menopause status was self-reported biennially. Time per week participating in specific activities was reported every four years and used to calculate metabolic task hours (MET). Moderate and vigorous activity in adolescence and young adulthood was reported in 1997. We used Cox proportional hazards model to evaluate the association between physical activity and incidence of natural menopause before age 45 controlling for potential confounding factors. We observed no significant association between adulthood physical activity and early menopause. For example, compared to women with/wk, the hazard ratio for women in the highest category (≥42 MET h/wk) of cumulatively-averaged total physical activity was 0.90 (95% confidence interval: 0.76-1.07; P-trend: 0.63). Similarly, activity in adolescence and young adulthood were unrelated to risk. Body mass index did not modify the relation of physical activity and early menopause. Our findings suggest that physical activity is not associated with incident early menopause.

The rising number of women who are overweight or obese living in Canada is concerning because an excess weight can lead to serious health problems. Nearly 65% of women living in Canada are considered overweight or obese. Regular physical activity (PA) participation is beneficial and can help women manage their weight. Considering women who are overweight or obese are generally physically inactive, interventions drawing on theory are warranted to promote PA. This thesis reports on the protocol and results of a randomized controlled trial that was conducted to assess the effect of a self-determination theory-based eHealth intervention on PA among women who were overweight or obese with low levels of PA. The full protocol for this study is described in Chapter 3: Protocol Manuscript and the results of the primary objective are presented in Chapter 4: Results Manuscript. Reflections on the lessons I have learned while implementing a clinical trial are presented in Chapter 5: Lessons Learned. Briefly, the selfdetermination theory-based eHealth intervention provided (A) six weekly behavioural support emails, (B) a wearable activity tracker, and (C) a copy of the Canadian PA guidelines. The primary objective of this study was to determine if participants who received the combined intervention (A+B+C) increased their PA levels from baseline to post-intervention. The secondary objective was to assess if this combined intervention leads to greater change in PA than those who received an intervention including (B+C) or only (C). It was hypothesized that participants in the combined intervention would increase their PA from baseline to postintervention, and that this increase would be greater than the increase observed among those who received an intervention including (B+C) or only (C). In addition, measures of constructs embedded in self-determination theory (i.e., basic psychological need satisfaction and thwarting, motivational regulations) and wellbeing (i.e., affect, vitality, wellbeing) were included to address tertiary objectives of examining if there are differences in changes in these constructs between groups. Participants were recruited between September 2018 and March 2019. Data were collected using self-report and direct measures three times: at baseline (week 0), postintervention (week 7), and at follow-up (week 21). Data from forty-six women (Mage=37.72±11.87 years, MBMI=31.55±5.96 kg/m2 ) were analyzed. Mean PA at baseline across all participants was 1148.12±1091.03 metabolic equivalent minutes (MET-minutes) per week. In relation to the primary study objective, PA increased from baseline to post-intervention (F=17.95, p.05) and the interaction between group and time (p>.05) were not significant. In summary, participants in this study showed a large and significant increase in PA, but the three different interventions did not have a differential impact on change in PA. Discussion of the findings regarding the primary and secondary objectives, and the potential implications of the tertiary objective, will provide insight into which combination of intervention components may be more effective at promoting PA among insufficiently active women who are overweight or obese, and thus inform the design of future interventions aiming to promote PA.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether cut-points developed for the general population provide different estimates of physical activity (PA) levels in adults with Down syndrome (DS) compared to cut-points developed specifically in adults with DS. This study also attempted to objectively measure the PA levels of adults with DS and to determine if they meet the recommended amount of PA to obtain health benefits. Thirteen adults with DS wore an accelerometer to determine time spent in moderate, vigorous, and moderate-to-vigorous PA. Results indicated that different sets of cut-points responded differently in classifying moderate and vigorous PA levels, as well as in classifying whether participants met the recommended amount of PA for health benefits, as evidenced by the different estimates of moderate-to-vigorous PA in 10 minute bouts. Results also indicated that population specific cut-points should be used for assessment of PA levels in persons with DS.

The early years are characterized by dramatic growth and the development of healthy behaviours, such as physical activity (PA). The objectives of this thesis were to assess one year tracking of fitness and PA in preschoolers and to investigate the relationship between fitness and PA over a one-year period. Four hundred preschoolers (201 boys, 199 girls; 4.5±0.9 years) participated in year 1 and year 2 assessments, 12.1±0.7 months apart. Height and weight were measured to calculate body mass index (BMI) and body fat percentage (%BF) was assessed with bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Two components of fitness were assessed: short-term muscle power (STMP) with a 10-second modified Wingate Anaerobic Test, and aerobic fitness with the Bruce Protocol progressive treadmill (TM) test. Peak Power (PP) and Mean Power (MP) were measures of STMP. TM time and 60-sec heart rate recovery (HRR) were indicators of aerobic fitness. PA data were collected for 7 days with ActiGraph accelerometers, and PA was quantified as the % of wear time (%WT) spent in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and vigorous PA (VPA). At year 2, participants were significantly heavier (year 1: 17.9±3.2; year 2: 20.3±3.8kg; p=0.000) and taller (year 1: 106.6±7.8; year 2: 113.5±7.8 cm; p=0.000). From year 1 to year 2, BMI decreased from 15.7±1.3 to 15.6±1.4 m/kg2 (p=0.008) and %BF decreased from 23.2±4.6 to 21.1±4.7% (p=0.000). Both PP and MP improved approximately 30 Watts (p=0.000) from year 1 (PP: 94.1±37.3; MP: 84.1±30.9) to year 2 (PP: 125.6±36.2; MP: 112.3±32.2). TM time increased 2.4±1.4 minutes (p=0.000) from 9.4±2.3 to 11.8±2.3 minutes and HRR was unchanged at 65±14 beats per minute (bpm). MVPA increased from 13.3±2.9 to 13.9±3.0 %WT (p=0.003) and VPA increased from 5.8±1.7 to 6.3±1.8 %WT (p=0.000). PP and MP tracked moderately to substantially (PP: r=0.89, κ=0.61; MP: r=0.86, κ=0.56). TM time and HRR tracked fairly to strongly (TM time: r=0.82, κ=0.56; HRR: r=0.52, κ=0.23). MVPA and VPA tracked fairly to moderately (MVPA: r=0.59, κ=0.28; VPA: r=0.37, κ=0.38). At year 1 and year 2, PP, MP and HRR were weakly correlated to PA variables (r=0.13-0.23, p=0.000-0.02). TM time was correlated to VPA at year 1 (r=0.131, p=0.016) and to MVPA and VPA at year 2 (r=0.12-0.15, p=0.006-0.023). Boys engaged in more MVPA at year 1 and year 2 (p=0.000). Boys and girls were separately divided into groups that decreased, maintained or increased MVPA or VPA from year 1 to year 2. Girls who maintained MVPA had higher weight %iles and %BF than girls who increased MVPA, at both year 1 and year 2. Boys who increased VPA saw a greater increase in HRR than those who maintained VPA (p=0.000). Our findings indicate that fitness tracks better than PA over a 12-month period during the early years, and that a weak, positive relationship between these variables exists. Other factors, including measures of body composition, are likely influencing these relationships. / Thesis / Master of Science in Kinesiology

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Cues have been theorized to promote health behaviors but currently our understanding of the effectiveness of cues is inconclusive. The purpose of this systematic review was to assess the effectiveness of cue interventions in promoting physical activity (PA). Six databases were searched which captured 3,996 articles. After comparison with the eligibility criteria, 19 articles were included in the review. Data extraction revealed that while cues were effective in increasing PA behavior, less than half of the studies (n = 8) were supported by theory-based methodologies. We concluded that cue-based interventions are effective for promoting PA behavior, but future research must develop valid measures of cues and incorporate theory into their study designs. The purpose of the thesis study aimed to address this gap by testing if cue consistency would help explain PA habit and behavior through the Dual Process approach. We conducted an observational study with two measurement periods. We recruited 196 participants via an online volunteer registry. Participants completed measures of exercise behavior, intention, habit, perceived behavioral control (PBC), affective attitudes, and cue consistency at baseline and one month later. We ran a Hierarchical Multiple Regression analysis to determine whether a) habit, intention, PBC, affective attitudes, and cue consistency predicted moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and b) whether PBC, affective attitudes, and cue consistency predicted habit. Our results showed that MVPA was significantly predicted by habit (β = 0.23, p < 0.01), intention (β = 0.16, p < 0.05), PBC (β = 0.23, p < 0.01), affective attitudes (β = 0.20, p < 0.05), and cue consistency (β = -0.20, p < 0.05). Habit was predicted by affective attitudes (β = 0.48, p < 0.001) and cue consistency (β = 0.32, p < 0.001), but PBC (β = 0.10, p = 0.11) was not significant. We found a stronger relationship between cue consistency and habit than previous studies that evaluated cues individually, supporting the cue consistency construct. Our results suggest that cue consistency should be incorporated in the Dual Process approach as a determinant of habit. Future research should look to replicate our findings through cue-based interventions grounded in theory.

BACKGROUND: The construct of intention continues to be an important correlate and predictor of physical activity; however, a substantial intention behaviour gap continues to exist. Little literature has examined this gap on a micro-temporal scale, and none have addressed the adolescent population. PURPOSE: The purpose of this thesis is to 1) examine whether there are variations in daily and within day intentions to be physically active in the adolescent population, and 2) whether the intention -physical activity gap is reduced when assessing intention and behaviour on a micro-temporal scale using Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA). METHODS: This thesis sample included 193 grade 11 students from a large school board in Southern Ontario. Participants responded to 5 EMA prompts for 7 days on their smartphones and wore accelerometers for the duration of the study. Each EMA prompt included a brief questionnaire assessing participant intentions to engage in physical activity. A mixed-effects logistic regression model was used to determine variability in intentions and descriptive analyses were used to examine the intention - behaviour gap. RESULTS: A mixed-effects logistic regression did not indicate differences in intentions between days of the week (coef. = -0.07 SE: 0.07, p=.27) but did indicate that likelihood of reporting intentions significantly decreases over the course of the day (coef. = -.479 SE=.05, p<.01). For daily intentions and physical activity, 89% of daily intenders engaged in subsequent physical activity while 46% of within day intenders engaged in subsequent physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that there is some variation in intentions and that a micro-temporal time scale measurement serves to reduce the intention - behaviour gap. This adds to our understanding of the relationship between intentions and physical activity. In better understanding this relationship, we can begin to guide interventions that bridge the gap between intentions and physical activity in the adolescent population. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Despite the known benefits of physical activity, rates remain low amongst adolescents. Previous research has outlined the importance of intentions as a predictor of physical activity; however, an intention behaviour gap persists. The current study examined this gap by assessing variation in intentions over the course of the week and day, and by examining intentions and physical activity closer together in time through the use of a smartphone app. Significant variation was found in intentions within the day to engage in activity. Descriptively assessing intentions and physical activity by measuring them closer together in time indicated a reduction in the daily intention behaviour gap but no significant differences between intentions and behaviour measured frequently within a day. Findings suggest that the intention to behaviour gap may be reduced by assessing intentions and behaviour more frequently and closer together in time. Further research is required to quantify this reduction.