This thesis examines how the apprenticeship system operated in England over the course of the eighteenth century as the nation saw the economy develop in the run up to the Industrial Revolution. Many have contended that this was a time when the apprenticeship system withered and declined, but it would appear that it actually possessed a degree of flexibility and adaptability to allow it to remain relevant to the new working environments that were beginning to emerge. By examining the apprenticeship indentures signed at the start of the training relationship it is possible to create a picture of how this ancient system operated during this time of change. These indentures provide not only a detailed picture of the background of the apprentices and the obstacles they overcame in order to undertake their training, but also allow for a greater understanding of the contract itself. The apprenticeship contracts were not as rigid as some historians have contended, as they were drawn up to take account of the specific circumstances faced by each pair of master and apprentice, and often made provisions for the situation of each party. This apparent flexibility in the contract differs from the traditional view of this type of working contract, and it was perhaps due to this method in which apprentices were contracted that allowed this traditional institution to continue to remain a key method of learning during this period. Various judicial records allow the study to develop beyond the original contract and highlight some common problem s arising between the two parties, as well as show that in addition to there being some flexibility in the contracting of the apprentices, the execution of this contract could vary greatly between individual apprentices.

Since ‘Modern Apprenticeships’ were first introduced in England in 1994, government supported apprenticeships have gone undergone a series of transformations leading to them being underpinned since 2009 by statute and taking a central role in the current UK Government’s state-led vocational skills and education programmes for England. Accordingly, the numbers of people starting and completing apprenticeship programmes each year has increased rapidly, but these increases have also seen expansion in the support structures provided by central government, organisations and businesses. It is these ‘support structures’ that are the focus of this thesis; uncovering who the actors are and what roles they perform in the provision of England’s government-supported apprenticeship programme. Conducting interviews with a variety of people and organisations from government through to employers, this thesis considers apprenticeship in England by way of the public and private organisations that perform these varying roles. Beginning with two quotations which between them offer ideas of structure (‘script’) and agency (‘improvisation’), the research introduces an innovative use of an ancient symbol called a ‘triquetra’ (‘three cornered’) to create an ‘Apprenticeship Triquetra’. In the ‘Apprenticeship Triquetra’, three initial groups of actors – government, employers and training providers – and the many other organisations and businesses that operate in the spaces between them, are juxtaposed with their functional counterparts of governance, employment and education. The Apprenticeship Triquetra then explores the relationships between these ‘actors’ and ‘factors’ through sociological theories of Foucault’s (1978) governmentality thesis and Actor Network Theory (Latour, 1987; Law, 1987). By adding a historical lens to the concepts and theories and drawing a Ii distinction between the apprenticeship ‘programme’ and the apprenticeship ‘system’, apprenticeship is shown to be a site of complex social interactions and vested interests. This multifaceted research presents a unique critique of apprenticeships in England and concludes with three findings. The first is that there appears to be a concerning level of commodification that has developed in the apprenticeship system. The second finding relates to the way in which the power of the government has been used to direct the apprenticeship programme and system. The third finding constitutes that of an observation born out of this thesis’ historical and contemporary narratives: apprenticeship acts as a social barometer reflecting broader social contexts