The increasing prevalence of Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC) has led to a national response within the UK to implement ways of supporting children and families affected by these conditions. WIthin the field of education, current legislation has identified a need to consider how to incorporate parental views into policy and practice. Key transitions can be particularly stressful for children affected by ASC and their fam~s~owever, little research has explored the first major transition within the education system for children with ASC: starting school. This mixed methods sequential study explored parental experiences and perspectives of their child's transition from nursery to primary school. Based within one local authority, purposive sampling was used to select parents of children in their first year of formal school (reception year). In phase one, five parents shared their views through semi-structured interviews. The data were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), and three overarching themes were identified: 'being a parent of a child with ASC', 'relationships with professionals', and 'importance of early identification'. Phase two involved using the overarching theme 'relationships with professionals' to create a questionnaire consisting of a semantic differential scale. The questionnaire was distributed to more parents, and descriptive statistics were used to analyse responses. The quantitative results indicated that the majority of parents had overall positive transition experiences. A key implication of this study is for professionals to incorporate parental views into transition policies and practice for children with ASC. The questionnaire can be used in the future to evaluate practice, and measure parental satisfaction following the transition. Limitations of this study and recommendations for future studies are discussed.

Paper one: The aim of paper one was to explore identity formation in autistic adolescents and the relationship between this and aspects of psychological wellbeing. Twenty-two participants (aged 11-18) with a diagnosis of autism from nine mainstream secondary schools completed scales on anxiety, self-esteem, and acculturation into autistic and non-autistic identities (cultural competence, identification, preference, and involvement). Nine of these participants also participated in a semi-structured interview to elicit in-depth perspectives in relation to aspects of acculturation listed above. Statistical analysis revealed no statistically significant relationship between measures of psychological wellbeing and acculturation types (bicultural, assimilated, separated, and marginalised), although descriptive statistics showed bicultural and marginalised participants had the greatest psychological wellbeing. The interviews were analysed thematically and data from six were separated into participants’ acculturation type. Findings revealed differences between the types; however, the large number of similarities was felt to suggest that the acculturation types are not as distinct within autism as other minority groups. Additionally, the impact of negative treatment and difficulties with social interactions within autism were felt to contribute to the lack of a statistically significant relationship between biculturalism and psychological wellbeing within this population. These findings are discussed in relation to other studies exploring identity formation and psychological wellbeing in minority groups, with limitations and suggestions for further research included. Paper two: The aim of paper two was to explore the perceived contextual factors that relate to identity formation in autistic adolescents attending mainstream education provision. Eight participants (aged 11-16 years) with a diagnosis of autism from four mainstream secondary schools participated in a semi-structured interview. Additionally, twenty participants (aged 12-18 years) with no known diagnoses from the same four mainstream secondary schools participated in one focus group with four members. Thematic analysis was undertaken on the two data sets and then these were compared and contrasted to reveal a number of key similarities. Autistic students can be seen as going against the ‘norm’ and can be treated negatively by peers. Students were generally felt to lack understanding about autism and have limited means to find out about it in school. Participants without autism, and some with, reported a strong desire for students to have increased understanding of the condition. These findings are discussed in relation to literature exploring the role of schools in identity formation, with limitations and suggestions for further research included. The two papers conclude with a discussion regarding implications, in relation to theory, practice, and the role of the EP.

The main aim of the study was to consider how parents' experiences of bringing up a child with autism might inform professional practice and provision. The enquiry investigated how mothers made sense of their experiences and the effects of bringing up their child, including their coping mechanisms and the arising key messages for practice. The study was based in a LA context and was carried out by a practising Educational Psychologist (EP). This research practitioner orientation required critical or action research elements to merge with interpretative method. Thus, initial contact was made with autism parent groups to ground the study in a local context and to develop research and interview questions. Critical action planning resulted from concerns arising from these groups. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with six mothers whose circumstances in bringing up their child had been particularly challenging. Their children attended both mainstream and special autism provision in the primary and secondary school sectors. The themes emerging from the powerful joint interpretative account of the mothers highlighted a deconstruction and reconstruction of self and expectations with unfulfilled wishes and control as key themes. Life impacts involved the child as central focus, an all-pervasive constant battle with self and others, including family, professionals and provision with associated child management issues being present. These key themes impacted on professional practice; and provision so that the importance of informed professional awareness, truly listening professionals, accepting school identity and service trust were highlighted. Professionals and parents should develop an understanding and acceptance of the child and each other, which still enables challenge and change. The position of fathers in family support needs further research and careful professional consideration. Professionals, including EPs, need to address the way they listen to parents. Some recommendations for all agencies and parents are provided which should lead us to a deeper understanding of humanity.

Educationalists working in the sphere of special education, psychologists and software engineers continue to debate the efficacy of technology interfaces and the merits of information technology with regard to supporting learning in children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and the need to standardise software design for this group. This research argues that, for these children to optimise the use of this technology, it must be designed to meet the learning needs and characteristics of this condition, and so a design/development standard is needed. There is currently no instruction to aid educational professionals in choosing suitable computer programs that can be employed to support learning to read in children with ASD. The present research offers a rigorous comparative analysis of the multimedia conditions. A selection instruction (SI) was developed to facilitate the choice of appropriate computer programs for children with ASD, and forms part of the pilot study for this investigation, which was later modified and developed into an educational computer programs design standard. This SI serves as a set of guidelines that is intended to assist professionals and the parents/guardians of children with ASD in their search for good, useable programs that will assist in the acquisition of early reading skills by this group. This research advocates the development of effective computer programs based on individualistic considerations and the stringent application of Human Computer Interaction (HCI) principles in the design of multimedia computer technology for children with ASD. Two educational programs were employed in the investigation, and the data collection method included quantitative (pre-tests; a comparative study of children with ASD and typically developing children in videorecorded sessions, and post-tests) and qualitative (interviews, and an attitude questionnaire) methods. This approach was triangulated, thereby promoting the validity and rigour of the investigation. The present research concludes that, although there were recorded gains in the application of computer technology to teach new words to children with ASD, there were problems relating to the appropriateness and suitability of the programs for the children employed in this research, as detected during the interviews and from the attitude questionnaires, noting the need for autistic preferences in the design and development of these educational computer programs. This investigation offers a broader approach to the theoretical understanding and explanation of autistic learning styles, reading methodologies and issues relating to the design, development and usability of multimedia computer technology. Attention is drawn to the inadequacy of the existing technology and research into ASD and how the disorder affects learning in these children.

This document comprises of three interrelated papers: a systematic literature review (Chapter 1), a bridging document (Chapter 2) and a piece of empirical research (Chapter 3). An interest in how occupational efficacy may be enhanced during adolescence, led to a systematic review of literature examining the effectiveness of interventions designed to enhance ‘Career Decision Making Self-Efficacy’ (CDSME). The review took a quantitative approach to reviewing the findings of 10 published papers. Findings of this review suggest limited effects of specific short-term interventions designed to increase CDSME in adolescents aged 11-16. An apparent paucity of literature was also apparent regarding CDSME development in young people attending schools for Social Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (SEBD). Important supplementary outcomes of the review include epistemological reflection on the conceptualisation of self-efficacy, and the methodology employed in its assessment; in particular the seemingly absent perspectives of the young people who partook in the reviewed studies. These considerations led to a piece of qualitative empirical research to explore the views of 6 students attending Riverdale SEBD School regarding perceptions of themselves and their occupational futures. Findings of this study suggest that Riverdale School experiences may potentially contribute to these pupil perceptions of themselves and possible future career options. This tentative understanding of pupils perceptions, developed through interpretation of their accounts, offers implications for local authority professionals responsible for the educational placement and experiences provided for these young people. A bridging document explains how findings of the systematic review led to the development of the research. It details the theoretical and epistemological underpinnings and provides justification for the methodology adopted. It also considers ethical and methodological dilemmas in more detail and provides reflexive commentary on the research process.

This PhD study makes an original contribution to to current research by examining through case study the impact of animal assisted activities for children and young people with Behaviour, Emotional and Social Difficulties (BESD). The thesis presents data, which supports that where contact with animals is offered as an alternative to traditional classroom based learning, children and young people with BESD are supported therapeutically, and enabled to build key relationship skills, thus enabling greater chance of success in learning. The primary motivation for the research was a commitment to better understand and thereby contribute, to a body of literature which seeks to explain and develop solutions and interventions for children and young people with a special need described as BESD alongside a curiosity for the world of nature and animals. Literature in this field includes consideration of frameworks which underpin work with BESD, such as research into trauma and its implications, leading to theories of attachment and in some cases, other psychodynamic concepts. Studies in Animal-Assisted Therapy and E.O.Wilson’s (2003) Biophilia Hypothesis support the consideration of animals as facilitators for mental and emotional health. The study employs a qualitative constellation methodology looking at three main case study contexts and utilising four additional smaller case studies to triangulate the findings. Psychosocial research tools were employed in order to understand the participants ‘story’, given the complexity of working with a vulnerable and challenging group. The main findings of the study show that animals have therapeutic potential as a conduit for relationships, being both social facilitators and taking the role of ‘the common third’ (Cameron and Moss, 2011). In a natural environment, with positive staff facilitation and purposeful activity, interventions with animals can support the development of key relationship skills such as trust, identification, empathy, nurture, understanding and self control. Further, the study shows there maybe educational impact, emotional impact, language and communication support and even health benefits. The study concludes with a discussion of the findings and makes recommendations for further empirical long-term research in the field of BESD and animal assisted activities.

Baird et al (2006) suggest that Autistic Spectrum Conditions (ASC) affect approximately 1 % of UK students. Nearly three-quarters of students with ASC attend mainstream school provision (DfE, 2012). The research explores perceptions of provision for ASC in mainstream schools. The research involved a 20% sample (36) of the total population of students who attended primary and secondary mainstream schools in the LA and who had a diagnosis of ASC. Students were placed at school action plus on the Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (DfES, 2001 ) or had a statement of special educational needs. This sample was drawn from both primary and secondary schools. This exploratory research is innovative in that attempts were made to secure both a geographical spread in the sample and a wide range of student needs. Semi-structured interviews allowed students, their parents and mainstream school staff to share perceptions of school. A mixed methods approach is adopted and both qualitative and quantitative data was collected and is discussed. Research findings indicated that students typically wanted a little more help in school. Those that wished for less help were often motivated by wishing to be seen as more independent. Students were often able to identify challenging areas of school life and frequently rated these areas as "very difficult" suggesting they caused anxiety. Typically, curriculum areas were rated as causing much more difficulty by students than social factors. Written recording was noted as a challenging feature of school. Parents appeared less concerned about curriculum difficulties compared to their children. The research identifies how some students do not always welcome help from peers and adults in school, preferring to be asked about whether they want help. Some students identified sensory issues, specifically noise, as causing difficulties. Noise made by other people was specified as challenging. The provision of a quiet area and the use of key visuals were identified as supportive by both students and staff. All staff using interventions to address emotions, for example, opportunities for students to discuss worries, reported that these were effective interventions. A high proportion of staff felt that ASC strategies are beneficial to students without ASC. Several parents valued Teacher Assistant support. They believed a good understanding of the individual was vital to including their child in school as was differentiation of response. They felt that lack of flexibility, poor communication with school or the approach adopted by certain staff could be a barrier. Parents were concerned about bullying, teasing and social issues, to a much greater degree than were their children. Some parents felt that research involving students with ASC at school should also consider the home environments. Staff and parents mentioned a good inclusive school ethos and flexible support as helpful. This research is original in considering the complexities of insider research as experienced by an Educational Psychologist researching school staff and parental views. The findings are discussed using conceptual frameworks of inclusion, child voice, Theory of Mind and a reconsideration of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1943). This research argues that safety needs are magnified as key motivators for those with ASC.

The prevalence of autism in children in the United Kingdom is estimated as one in one hundred (Department of Health, 2012), with higher levels reported in some countries (Srivastava, 2013). These children experience significant problems with the development of language and communication skills. A symbol-based communication system called Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is widely used to address this issue and evidence indicates this approach can be effective when administered by trained professionals (Preston and Carter, 2009). Technology appears to offer an alternative way of encouraging non-verbal children with autism to use symbol-based communication to improve social interaction and communication. Therefore, the purpose of the research was to answer the following research questions: 1. Can a Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) system be designed and implemented to support PECS pedagogy for the purpose of improving symbol communication and social interaction in non-verbal children with autism? 2. To what extent could such a system improve the communication and social interaction skills of non-verbal children with autism? The investigation comprised three stages. In Stage 1, a prototype system was developed incorporating a 'virtual tutor' and an RFID-based (radio frequency identification) user interface to support physical symbol selection and placement. In Stage 2, a pilot study focused on classroom learning experiences of eight children using CAPE Version 1. Results provided ‘proof of concept’ and indicated that non-verbal children with autism learned to interact effectively with CAPE. Participants achieved more appropriate symbol selections when a virtual tutor used a synthetic voice compared to a natural voice alternative. Outcomes from the pilot informed the development of a CAPE Version 2. Stage 3 comprised a four-week classroom study involving five non-verbal children with autism. Children, using CAPE Version 2, answered numeracy questions using graphic symbols. Interviews from supporting teachers provided a degree of triangulation with investigator observations and teacher interviews. Stage 3 results suggest that four participants developed their communication skills, one child learned to count, three children improved basic numeracy skills and two children used speech using CAPE version 2, supported by a virtual tutor and a human teacher. This research suggests that non-verbal children with autism can engage positively and productively with PECS using the CAPE approach.

This dissertation explores the educational experiences of children identified as having the contested disability label Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (EBD) in four Irish primary schools. Creative, participatory methodologies and focus group interviews were used to gather the children's perceptions of school and learning. Focus groups were used also with their parents, teachers and SNAs to explore the factors that supported or hindered the children's learning experiences. Significant findings include: the impact of disability labels; how the negative discourses that go hand-in-hand with disability labels impact on how professionals perceive the children and their learning abilities. Furthermore, supports currently on offer separate the children, often unnecessarily, from their peers and increase marginalisation. A greater emphasis on supports for all at classroom level is required. Teachers must be flexible and support the needs of all learners by providing a rich and participative learning environment for all the pupils they encounter. To this end, a framework informed by the testimonies of the children, their parents, teachers and SNAs and the relevant literature is presented. This provides educators with a tool for self-evaluation to review how obstacles to inclusion can be resolved at classroom level. The finding that the current resourcing system disadvantages children with non-normative SEN/EBD will interest policy makers. The implications for the Inspectorate are that it is timely to evaluate schools with a wider lens, looking critically at the supports schools provide for pupils in terms of health and well-being, and in particular, social, emotional and behavioural supports. This will ensure that pupils identified as having EBD are enabled to achieve to the maximum and do not fall foul of those deterministic beliefs about the abilities of young children that often prevail in our schooling system.

This thesis uncovers the experiences of transition from higher education for emerging adults - students and recent graduates - on the autism spectrum and explores their aspirations for the future. Evidence suggests that the number of students disclosing an autism spectrum diagnosis to their higher education institution in the UK has greatly increased in recent years and whilst there is a growing body of evidence which investigates the pre-induction needs of this population, there is a paucity of research which explores their experience in making the transition from higher education. A sample of twenty-one emerging adults (n=10 students and n=11 recent graduates) on the autism spectrum participated in the study where qualitative methods, including semi-structured interviews and visual life-maps, were utilised to develop an in-depth and contextualised understanding of post-graduate transition from eight higher education institutions across England. This study makes an original contribution to the field by offering a theorisation of transition for emerging adults on the autism spectrum as a complex phenomenon experienced across practical, psychological and philosophical domains. Three broad aspirational destinations – occupational, relational and personal – were identified for this population, with successful transition to each being affected by both distal and proximal capacities and resources. By understanding autism in terms of neurodiversity rather than deficits, this study demonstrates the enabling effects contextual factors can have with respect to the differences experienced by autistic people making the transition from higher education. The findings from this thesis have implications for higher education, employers and service-providers regarding policy and practice, particularly with respect to improving transitional support for emerging adults on the autism spectrum making the transition from university.