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The potential of four pilot-scale wastewater treatment processes for in-building greywater recycling has been assessed. The evaluation of three membrane bioreactors (MBRs) and a biological aerated filter (BAF) was principally with reference to the non-potable water reuse quality standards. In the steady-state trials the feedwater quality was changed from synthetic greywater to blackwater (primary sewage influent) simulating the variability of domestic wastewater. The submerged MBR met both the chemical and microbiological water reuse quality standards independent of the feedwater strength. The BAF mostly achieved a significant reduction in organic pollutants but failed to meet the microbiological water quality criteria. Greywater treatment by the side-stream MBR resulted in a very good effluent quality whilst the membrane aeration bioreactor (MABR) had the most limited capacity to remove the pollutants measured. The unsteady-state trials were carried out on the submerged MBR and the BAF. The performance of the former remained relatively unchanged in the feedwater transitions and the intermittent operation of feed and/or air with synthetic greywater. These tests on the BAF resulted in a loss of performance such that in some cases the recovery took several days. In the supplementary experiments nutrient deficiency, variability in strength and degradation during storage were found typical of both real and synthetic greywater, hence potentially affecting the treatability of greywater. A survey on behavioural patterns in households indicated that perceived harmfulness of a substance did not necessarily affect the frequency with which it was discharged. Laboratory experiments suggested that some substances discharged with the greywater may increase the risk of failure of the biological treatment process.

The Arctic region is a seemingly pristine, remote environment, yet in the past few decades there has been increasing evidence that it is greatly impacted by anthropogenic metal contamination. The heavy metals are attributed to adverse effects on the health of biota and indigenous populations, due to their toxicity and bioaccumulative tendencies within the environment. There are three main metal contaminants of major concern, lead (Pb). mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd). They have all been reported as ubiquitous anthropogenic pollutants with elevated concentrations identified throughout the Arctic's sedimentary environment. The aim of this research was to investigate further heavy metal contamination, specifically within the sediments of the Svalbard region, and the Barents Sea area, within the Arctic. Ten sediment cores were taken for analysis from three main fieldwork excursions. The cores were taken from three different environments; lacustrine, fjordic and marine. A comparison between these core sites allowed the identification of the major transport pathways within this region and the relative importance of atmospheric and oceanic transport. Three cores were taken from the inner Kongsfjorden area, four cores from the Barents Sea, with three further cores taken from the Vøring Plateau and the area south of Svalbard. Each core was analysed to ascertain metal concentrations and to reconstruct the temporal contaminant history of the area. The source of the contaminant can be determined through the use of stable isotope analysis. The isotopic ratio provides a 'signature': ultimately reflecting the source of the Pb, and this tool can also be used to verify the transport pathways of the anthropogenic Pb contamination. The 206Pb/207Pb isotopic ratio of western sources of anthropogenic Pb has a value of approximately 1.14, with Eastern Europe and Eurasian sources represented by a higher value of 1.18. Two cores taken from the Barents Sea (BASICC 1 and BASICC 40), along with cores taken from a freshwater lake (ICOS1), an anoxic lagoon (ICNL1), and the Vøring plateau (VP2a), show a clear increase in Pb concentration in modern sediments, corresponding with a decrease in the 206Pb/207Pb isotope ratio. This pattern signifies a change in the source of the Pb over time, associated with anthropogenic contamination: the results providing evidence of the long range distribution of contaminant Pb following the industrial revolution and the utilisation of alkyl Pb in petrol. Lake Ossian (ICOS1), a site situated close to Ny Ålesund provides unequivocal evidence for the atmospheric transport of Pb. The excess 206Pb/207Pb ratio was calculated as 1.165, indicative of an Eastern European emission source. The most compelling story, however, emerges from the contaminant archives contained in the marine sediment cores within the Barents Sea area, and from the Vøring Plateau. These sediment cores provide vital evidence that contaminant Pb is transported by oceanic currents to the Arctic environment. There is only one other study that has concentrated on the specific oceanic transport of Pb. This thesis further supports the hypothesis that the Atlantic water current is a prominent pathway for the transportation of Pb to the Eurasian Arctic Basin, with the Pb being scavenged to the underlying sediments en-route. From the area around Kongsfjorden, north-west Svalbard, four sediments cores were taken along a longitudinal transect, from freshwater to the marine environment, and analysed for Hg. None of the four sediment cores displayed evidence of significant anthropogenic contamination. Sediment from Brandallaguna (ICNL1) showed a small increase in Hg concentration towards the surface of the core. Diagenetic processes, however, cannot be disregarded, with Hg forming HgS in anoxic conditions. It is evident in the literature and from this study that further research is required to improve the understanding of the complex Hg biogeochemical cycle. For the contaminant Cd, there has been unequivocal evidence from snow and ice records, indicating an increase in Cd flux from the mid 18th century to the mid 19th century, associated with anthropogenic influence. None of the cores within this study show this temporal change in flux. Elevated concentrations of Cd, however, have been shown in the deep parts of two of the cores taken from the Barents Sea (BASICC 40 and BASICC 43), the Cd being precipitated as authigenic CdS in anoxic sediment. This research supports the hypothesis that the dissolution and remobilisation of Cd can make sediments a poor record of Cd temporal history.

Agrochemicals and pesticides are compounds of significant industrial and commercial importance. Over recent years, legislation has increased greatly and with this increased regulation, the necessity for trace impurity analysis of pesticides has grown. Modem chromatographic techniques with both UV and mass spectrometric detection have been used in the study of pesticidal compounds to separate and characterise impurities present at low levels. The use of these techniques is evaluated and suggestions for future work are outlined. The use and analysis of the pesticidal study compounds are reviewed and the instrumental techniques of capillary electrophoresis (CE), mass spectrometry (MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) are described. The quaternary ammonium herbicide Paraquat is amongst the most widely used herbicidal products worldwide. The technique of capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) was evaluated as a means of separating paraquat from a mixture of related impurity compounds. The preconcentration technique of transient capillary isotachophoresis (tCITP) was examined as a means of improving detection limits. Both CZE and tCITP were used successfully in the analysis of technical paraquat. CE-MS was performed with varying levels of success. Flutriafol is a fungicidal compound widely used in the control of cereal diseases. HPLC methodology was developed for use in the separation of flutriafol from a mixture of related impurity compounds. The technique was successfully used in the analysis of a sample of production material with over 25 impurity peaks detected. HPLC-MS was performed and the use of SIM, SRM and CRM were investigated as a means of improving detection limits. HPLC-MS was used in the analysis of a production sample and over twenty peaks were detected in the total ion chromatogram (TIC). The mass spectral information obtained enabled the tentative identification of a number of impurities.

The effects of oil pollution on a sand lizard {Acanthodactylus scutellatus) were studied throughout 2002 and 2003 at Greater Al-Burgan oil fields in Kuwait. This study examined the effects on this species because large land-based oil spills (such as in Kuwait in 1991) present a new environmental concem. The most unexpected outcome of the study was that assumptions made about the degrees of contamination based on physical evidence (such as soot and tar) were not supported. All the classes of contaminated sites appeared to be equally contaminated. Population studies of the lizards and their ant prey seem to have many interpretational problems. The population sizes of A. scutellatus did not vary markedly among the study sites using the pitfall trap and transect methods which could be due to the fact that all the sites were equally polluted with oil. Initially, the daily behaviour of A. scutellatus was observed. Field observations included the timing of morning emergence as well as basking and foraging behaviours. These behaviours seemed influenced by oil pollution with lizards on the highly polluted sites emerging earlier than the other sites. The presumably highly polluted sites exhibited the highest substrate temperatures, influencing basking of A. scutellatus. Basking duration decreased as the degree of pollution increased. Foraging behaviour did not differ between the study sites because the lizards continued as a 'Sit and wait' predators at all the locations and did not have to increase their foraging. Lizards were examined in the laboratory for their substrate preference. They were monitored using a digital video camera and the times spent on polluted and/or nonpolluted substrates were recorded. Lizards collected from the tar mat sites preferred to remain on the dark substrate whereas those collected from the control sites chose the light substrate. The strength of this response suggests that the behaviour is highly adaptive because possessing this cryptic colouration is essential to avoid predators. Lizard body size and weight were measured and adult lizards were larger on the tar mat and soot sites than on the clear and control sites. Food appeared to be available in greater quantities on the tar mat and soot sites and consuming prey with high levels of fat resulted in lizards accumulating adipose tissue in their bodies. Crude oil contains heavy metals with nickel and vanadium generally being the predominant elements. An attempt was also made to determine if heavy metals in the environment influenced sand lizards. Concentrations of these elements were determined in soil and whole body tissues of lizard using ICP/AES analysis. There was a significant variation in nickel concentration in soil between the control and the soot and tar mat sites. Nickel concentration differed in lizard samples from the control and the tar mat sites. Vanadium concentration in soil differed between the control and the tar mat sites but did not show any difference in lizard tissues between the different study sites. Sixteen PAHs (EPA priority pollutants) were studied using GC/MS in lizard and ant whole body tissues to investigate their presence and concentration. Of the 16, phenanthrene, fluoranthene and benzo[a]anthracene were present in the polluted sites but undetectable in the control sites for both lizards and ants. Although 12 years have passed since the Kuwait oil spill catastrophe, all sites are still contaminated with PAHs (there was no distinction between tar mat, soot and clear sites). The effects of PAHs and heavy metals on the histopathology of A. scutellatus vital organs such as liver were also investigated. Hepatocytes showed remarkable responses to PAHs and heavy metals. Swollen hepatocytes, ballooning degeneration of cytoplasm and dead cells were the most common cytopathological signs observed. This research confirms that A. scutellatus is a suitable bioindicator species for ecotoxicological studies on the effect of PAH compounds. The importance of lizards was emphasized in hope that they be included in ecological risk assessments as well as studies on environmental contamination in desert locations such as Kuwait. This is because lizards are an important component of biodiversity, and many such species are listed as threatened or endangered.

Part I of the thesis reviews and analyses the existing legal and administrative frameworks that provide for the establishment of MPAs in Antarctica, including the application of international conservation agreements (Chapter 2) and the function of Antarctic Treaty System instruments (Chapters 3 and 4) within this unique political situation. Three case studies presented in Part II of the thesis explore specific aspects of the shortcomings identified in Part I, and suggest ways in which the new tools and procedures proposed by this thesis could be applied in practice. In chapter 5, data obtained from the Southern Ocean Mollusc Database (SOMBASE) are used to investigate patterns of diversity in the Antarctic Peninsula region at different spatial scales, and the potential for the use of such data in MPA selection. These data have limited use in the selection of a representative series of MPAs because of their patchy distribution and low sample numbers; however some coarse patterns are present. In Chapter 6, field observations made at King George Island are used to evaluate existing strategies to manage localised human pressures, resulting in the recommendation of new protection and management systems for this area. In Chapter 7, options for large-scale ecosystem protection and fisheries management in the Ross Sea are proposed, using a combination of the tools and procedures defined in the preceding chapters. The thesis concludes that the Commission for the conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has the greatest competence and legal authority to establish MPAs, but that closer interaction with other Antarctic Treaty instruments and external agreements is necessary for this to be achieved.

The aim of the present study is to provide a new, updated spatial NH₃ emission inventory for the UK, building on the established AENEID model (Atmospheric Emissions for National Environment Impacts Determination). Improvements to the model were implemented for the distribution methodology of pig and poultry manure, a spatially varying cattle grazing season was incorporated, and the temporal resolution improved from annual to monthly emission estimates. A variable emission source strength was incorporated by linking the model with the NARSES N-flow model, a current tool used in the UK for assessing abatement efficiencies. Uncertainties in the spatial NH₃ emission inventory resulting from the aggregation of zones in the agricultural statistics were also assessed, showing that such aggregation has a significant impact on the spatial location of emissions. The new distribution methodology for emissions from pig and poultry manure is based on an iterative process, taking into account the “manure saturation rate” to agricultural land, and provides more realistic results than the original model where all emissions were distributed within the parish of origin. The cattle grazing season in the UK varies significantly throughout the country and also between years. By incorporating a sub-model of housing emissions, associated storage and spreading emissions and grazing emissions. The monthly ammonia emission maps showed a strong seasonal emission pattern, with the highest modelled emissions occurring in springtime and the lowest emissions during summer. The total UK agricultural NH₃ emission for year 2000, based no the new AENEID approach, was estimated at 221 kt NH₃-N or 268 kt NH₃.

Agricultural pollution from pesticides is an example of technological externality. In the presence of externalities decision making will probably never be optimal as externalities typically exist outside the decision making process. One of the main problems of incorporating externalities into the decision making process has been a lack of environmental impact data. This thesis examines one methodological approach for identifying the environmental impacts associated with pesticide pollution; pesticide ranking indices. It will discuss the general rationale for the use of pesticide ranking indices, discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches and recommend the adoption of one particular model for assessing the impacts associated with pesticide use at a farm and regional level. The model was tested against pesticide use data collected from European apple growing regions to ascertain whether results could be obtained that would be useable and understandable to decision makers at all levels. Accepting that each methodology for identifying the impacts associated with pesticide use has both strengths and weaknesses, improvements in both model structure and data presentation are proposed that render the inclusion of environmental impact information in the decision making process more useable at the farm level. Thus a modified model is presented that, it is argued, can adequately describe some of the external effects associated with pesticide use. This methodology can then be used by regulators wishing to minimise environmental pollution from agriculture and forestry, by identifying an appropriate threshold of acceptance or unacceptable environmental impact.

Biodiversity has played an important role in human society, not only through direct economic benefits but also through indirect non-economic benefits. As biodiversity changes so humans need to reconsider its value. Biodiversity evaluation is poorly quantified because it is highly complex at different levels - genetic, species and ecosystem - and based on multidimensional concepts. It is difficult to incorporate biodiversity value into an impact assessment (IA) even though it is a desirable process, which helps to ensure that the project/programme/policy development avoids damaging the environmental, social and economic sectors. This study aims to explore constructive biodiversity evaluation with regard to 1) species level as species composition, species richness and species diversity; 2) ecosystem level as carbon storage and other services; and 3) human level as socio-economic aspects. These indicators are normally identified as non-monetary values or are sometimes valued from an economic point of view through contingent valuation or shadow pricing. Specifically, this study attempts to quantify the value of biodiversity indicators within the ecosystem structure and function. Species and habitat diversity can represent a component of ecosystem structure and, at the ecosystem level can also represent ecosystem functions (goods and services). Carbon storage in ecosystems becomes a legitimate representation of ecosystem services related to C 02 mitigation, and global climate change objectives. Moreover, humans are considered as a component in biodiversity to take account of socio-economic aspects. These biodiversity indicators must be weighed equally. To assess wider biodiversity evaluation and a new alternative IA approach, these developments have been tested in a case study of the planned Ban Koum Hydropower Project in the Lower Mekong Basin. An analysis of species composition, richness and diversity showed that main effects of dam construction would be a quantifiable loss of the riparian zone and destruction of its plant associations. Construction also causes major loss of species diversity in phytoplankton and change in dominance. It is estimated that 0.66x10⁶ tonne of stored carbon will be lost from terrestrial ecosystem through inundation but a further 3.60xl0⁶ tonne will be lost as the loss of carbon storage potential and the result of human encroachment into primary forest over a period of 50 years. This compares to a gain of 0.56xl0⁶ tonne if there is no dam construction. Depending on mitigation options, the economic value of carbon loss is $47-851 million and the carbon gain without construction would be $13-244 million. A questionnaire survey of local families before and after dam construction showed a decline in quality of life, economic security and job opportunity from the dam development project. This revised IA approach can lead to improved assessment of proposed developments through more reliable techniques that focus on consideration of carbon storage at the global scale, species diversity at the regional scale and socio-economics at the local scale. This revised IA can also improve the decision-making process by providing a more holistic and realistic approach to natural resource use.

Within towns and cities there are fragmented natural landscape elements that contain important biodiversity and provide other ecosystem services. These natural landscape elements are increasingly being divided into smaller, more fragmented spaces by anthropologically driven landscape changes. In order to safeguard biodiversity and other ecosystem services, these natural elements must be protected and enhanced sustainably. Previous conservation strategies have been unable to reverse the trend of decreasing biodiversity in the UK. Landscape scale conservation could provide a more integrated approach to conservation that is compatible with fragmented natural landscapes in urban regions. This thesis contains a critical discussion on the current implementation and future potential of landscape scale conservation strategies in and around the Merseyside conurbation, the Manchester conurbation and the Mersey Valley. Current landscape composition and recent landscape changes are explored through the analysis of land cover maps and literature. The content, interactions and articulations of international, national, regional and local policies are examined with the aid of the qualitative data analysis software NVivo® 7. The innovative creation of opportunity maps for biodiversity enhancement using a cost-distance analysis and focal statistics approach is then explored. Wildlife experts provided ecological data and feedback to support this process. Data suggest that recent landscape changes in the study region were due to urbanisation, natural succession, poor habitat management and ecological restoration. Analysis of nature conservation legislation and policy indicated that some elements of landscape scale conservation are more frequently referred to in regional and local policies rather than national and international policies. There is incomplete translation of nature conservation themes from higher to lower level legislation. Opportunity mapping successfully identified areas where conservation efforts could be focused, particularly for moderately mobile species. Landscape scale nature conservation efforts explored in this thesis provide a viable way of enhancing biodiversity within urban areas.