This thesis seeks to make a contribution to the critical literature on management, and, particularly, to the critique of knowledge management (KM). It suggests that the mainstream understanding of KM has some important problems, but we cannot see them as a disease curable by new managerial techniques. Rather, it is argued that management to a certain extent may be part of the problem of which it is purported to be the solution. The mainstream approach to KM has its roots in the predominant view of knowledge which assumes that the application of knowledge contributes to societal progress, within the context of the common social good. This view may be in some sense axiomatic and universal, but it might pose a problem insofar as it relies on a human-centred belief that knowledge endows man with the superior ability to dominant his environment. This belief is further strengthened by a neo-classical economic understanding of the world which presumes that we can see knowledge as a resource to serve our economic interest. However, from some poststructuralist perspectives, knowledge is inseparable from power, and this means that knowledge may contain uncontrollable dimensions and may generate unwarranted consequences beyond economic concerns. Moreover, from a deep ecological view, our industrial activity has become one of the major causes of environmental crisis, and the process is itself accelerated by the efficient application of knowledge in the production system. The limits of the application of knowledge are illustrated through a consideration of issues raised in mainstream KM because it seems to be an epitome of the predominant understanding of both knowledge and management. Via a theoretical excursion, it is suggested that the orthodox concept of KM has some intrinsic problems. On the one hand it embraces the age-old belief that, with modern techniques, we have ultimate control over our environment, and on the other it assumes that knowledge can be used to meet a sectional requirement - economic efficiency, while ignoring the dark side of economic growth in relation to non-monetary social and ecological costs. An additional element is the view that sees management as a (conceptual or practical) too] to serve the purpose of managing knowledge. However, it is not our business to discuss these problems except insofar as the current state of KM offers a weak response to them. One of the main reasons is that mainstream KM is often mired in a framework in which economic values have attained the highest regard and economic goals have somewhat displaced other social objectives. Nevertheless the, dilemma is that knowledge is too powerful and too indispensable for modem society; that is, we cannot simply abandon tile concept of KM, because the application of knowledge has already become an integral part of modem life, and business organisations are becoming more demanding in terms of the use of functionally specialised knowledge. Faced with these difficulties, it is argued that we need to articulate an alternative understanding of KM, and this work suggests that such a project can be grounded on what can be termed 'ecological consciousness'. However, this requires two major things. First, we suggest that since mainstream KM has its roots in the predominant, economic understanding of knowledge and management, we need to re-examine these two components and the relationships between them. Second, we shall illustrate an alternative set of worldviews and decision criteria for KM which escapes the eco-systematic problems and is emancipatory in essence. That is to say, the ultimate intention is to construct some alternative, thought tentative, possibilities of KM.

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This research describes the problems facing two important professional communities, Quality Management (QM) and Knowledge Management (KM), which face multiple challenges in their efforts to impact the organisations in which they operate and contribute significantly to their performance and financial results. The two communities are positioned at very different points in their maturity life cycle. While QM is an aging community that is trying to regain its relevancy, the KM community is still in its infancy, and is struggling to mature. Many practitioners and academics consider both to be 'over promising and under delivering'. The aim of this research is to explore how the two communities can enhance their effectiveness. As a theoretical framework the author used the concept of Intellectual Capital, which is usually used in the context of formal organisations, and applied it to the case of professional communities. The hypothesis states that the two communities have complementary Intellectual Capitals, i.e. that the intangible assets of each can be shared and exchanged through different patterns of interaction. An investigation was conducted into whether the flows of such intangible assets between Quality Management (QM) and Knowledge Management (KM) can increase their organisational effectiveness. The research surveyed the scientific as well as professional literature and classified the evidence on QM/KM interactions into twelve patterns that cover the spectrum, from complete ignorance of each other to full co-operation. Two case studies are explored, where explicit efforts to encourage flows of Intellectual Capital were demonstrated, one at a company level and the other at a national level. A unique methodology and visual tool, to map the Intellectual Capital of professional communities, was developed and used to draw a generic map of the complementary ICs of QM and KM and the potential flows between them, as perceived by a diverse body of experts from both communities. Finally, a series of (computer aided) focus groups were held with professionals. Based on triangulation of the data between the 14 expert interviews, 2 in-depth case studies, 68 focus group attendees and the literature, the following contributions to knowledge were identified: 0 Creation of a new scheme to classify interactions between professional communities. O The application of the Intellectual Capital concept to professional communities. Q New insights into the situation of QM and KM communities using the framework of Intellectual Capital, and the complementary nature of their intangible assets. Q New perspective on flows of Intellectual Capital between different entities (in this case professional communities) as a way to increase the effectiveness of both. QA new methodology to self-assess and map Intellectual Capital.

Purpose Knowledge Management (KM) is by now a recognized term, increasingly accepted in the corporate community. This research contributes a better understanding of its implementation by providing a list a factors, which though each seems self-evident, their combination, and the experience acquired in applying them would support practitioners applying KM, and constitute a stepping stone for researchers for deepening the knowledge about it. Research context Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI), where this research has been conducted, is a large aerospace and defence company that has gone through a change process inclusive of KM implementation. Research approach A qualitative research strategy with a constructivist paradigm using action research (the author also being the director of knowledge of the company), was used. A case study methodology has been utilized over five divisions representing the average KM performance in the company. Sources of information have included questionnaires, interviews, data from the various management tools employed by the programme, and author's observations. Success factors for KM implementation The factors relevant to the General Manager of an organization and to the Knowledge Manager were found to be: The profile of the knowledge manager. The perception of relevance of KM to the business. A structured framework for the organization to follow. The acceptance of long term values. Management support. The openness of the General Manager to external knowledge. The knowledge manager's initiative. Originality is found in: Application of a comprehensive KM framework, its procedures and measures. A multi-level measurement of KM goals as a link to the organization's business goals. Application of the Hoshin Kanri method for the management of KM. Application of a staged assessment of maturity for a KM implementation. The factors mentioned above, their peculiar combination and further understanding of the GM and the knowledge manager roles.

Many companies have had adverse experiences of information system costing more and delivering less than originally planned. This thesis proposes a tool set for effective IT portfolio management. RollsRoyce Naval Marine sponsored a study to create, develop and evaluate a practical IT portfolio management toolset. One implication of this was tat the study took place entirely within a 'live' environment - the tools were developed in close partnership with the employees of Rolls-Royce, and the work performed was a significant contributor to the profit margin of Rolls-Royce Naval Marine Support. The initial version of the toolset was piloted in the Configuration Management area of the Submarine Support business units. Other Rolls-Royce business units then provided a test for the general applicability of the methodologies and tools developed. The objectives of the IT portfolio management strategy were to maintain current business capability, enable future business, and where possible, identify possible cost savings through betrer usage of information. The portfolio management framework drew upon Checkland's soft systems methodology, extensively adapting it to suit the specific situation faced. Various tools were employed to solicit current and future business requirements. Feature analysis was evaluated for use in matching features to systems, cost, strategic intent, and process. Diagrammatic tools included different types of rich pictures, entity relationship diagrams and contextual data flow diagrams. Gap analysis illustrated the difference between capability and requirements. Techniques were developed to portray the results so that they could be effectively communicated. Options were evaluated using various methods for assessing costeffectiveness. A technique was developed to manage the various stakeholders involved in the information systems strategy. The output was a cost-effective, implementable strategy that supported both current and future business requirements, and had buy-in from users, developers, and management. The IT portfolio management strategy was evaluated by identifying actual and potential operational savings, leading to a rationalisation of the methodology to provide more flexibility. The IT portfolio management strategy developed is specific to the business site. However, the process by which it was created can be used by any business, and is very flexible. Several of the tools have been used in other parts of Rolls-Royce with success, two of them are under consideration for adoption into Rolls-Royce processes for global deployment. IT portfolio management in other areas of RollsRoyce is being increasingly influenced by the framework and toolset created during this thesis.

Changes in construction projects are common and can lead to disruptive effects such as project delays, cost overruns and quality deviations. The rework due to unplanned changes can cost 10-15% of contract value. By managing these changes more effectively, these disruptive effects can be minimised or avoided. Previous research has approached this industry problem from an information-processing view with the introduction of hard IT based solutions. In this knowledge age, this study argues that effective change management can be brought about by understanding the significant role of knowledge during change situations. In managing change, the construction project team members bring their tacit and explicit knowledge into the problem situation and it is this knowledge that is captured, converted and shared between the parties during the change process. With this knowledge-based perspective of managing project change, the research problem is articulated for this study as follows: How does the construction project team manage knowledge during unplanned change in the construction phase within collaborative team settings? The research problem is investigated by a conceptual model supported by hypotheses, which recognises and integrates process, group, organisational and wider environmental characteristics within the change process. The research methodology for this study adopted a phenomenological research philosophy. Within this context, case studies were used to investigate the research problem. The principal data collection technique used in the case studies was the semi-structured interviews. Content analysis and cognitive mapping techniques were used to analyse the primary data. The case study findings reveal that different forms of knowledge are created and shared between project team members during problem-solving activities of change events. These knowledge flows are very much centred on tacit knowledge and experience of project personnel. This social construction and use of knowledge in change management challenges the prevailing codification knowledge management solutions based on 'hard' IT approaches, which do not appreciate and accommodate this social phenomenon. The study concludes by stressing the need to balance codification knowledge management strategies with 'soft' personalisation strategies to stimulate and support appropriate social interaction between team members and, thereby, enhance the creation, dissemination and shared understanding of tacit project experience. It is through the balance of codification and personalisation strategies that collaborative teams can successfully resolve and learn from change events in the construction phase of projects.

This thesis extends the academic debate on the determinants of international knowledge transfer effectiveness. In a sample of German organisations that transfer knowledge to their Chinese subsidiaries, it is shown that organisations with distinct teaching skills (eloquent capacity) perform significantly better at intra-organisational, cross-border knowledge transfers than other organisations. It is further illustrated that organisations with high levels of self-efficacy and low levels of partner differences develop significantly better eloquent capacity, channel capacity, and absorptive capacity. The thesis thereby provides insights into the determinants of knowledge transfer effectiveness that go beyond the concepts established in the literature. It also contributes to established concepts. The thesis shows that absorptive capacity is partly absolute and relative. Furthermore, it extends the view that knowledge transfers between unequal partners fail due to a lack of absorptive capacity to the view that they fail because of a lack of eloquent and absorptive capacity. The thesis integrates the antecedent literature. Analogical reasoning reveals that theories on effective communication fully cover the empirical evidence on effective knowledge transfers. As such, a holistic approach to understanding knowledge transfer effectiveness in a single theoretical framework is found. This helps to dispose of the lack of integration of research output in the discipline and offers other researchers a valuable framework within which research into knowledge transfer effectiveness can be conducted. The thesis contributes to research methodology by illustrating the value of combining conceptual, qualitative and quantitative findings. The qualitative and quantitative data collected from the same sample lead to seemingly opposing conclusions in one area of investigation. This apparent discrepancy is eliminated after the conceptual, qualitative and quantitative findings are triangulated and combined. The thesis thereby shows the value of a mixed-methods approach to understanding knowledge transfer effectiveness. In sum, the thesis offers advanced explanations for the empirical reality of international knowledge transfer effectiveness. It suggests methodologies and frameworks that can guide and improve future inquiries into the effectiveness of international knowledge transfers.

The geographic landscape of innovation has changed in recent years, embodying a larger number of countries that are dispersed across the globe. With this change, multinational corporations (MNCs) began to more aggressively expand their global presence in order to access complementary, and sometimes even superior, resources that are context-specific, and embedded in distant nations. In this thesis, I focus on the activities of subsidiaries located outside home-country borders to examine how the MNC creates, integrates and retrieves knowledge across borders. Four empirical studies constitute this thesis, where each follows on from the previous study in a sequential manner. In all four studies, the data used consists of a sample of 26,708 patents published by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to 1,022 foreign subsidiaries belonging to one of 238 semiconductor MNCs headquartered in the United States. These data span the time period 1980-2005, and are assigned to subsidiaries located in 42 countries, of which 15 are considered to be emerging market economies. The first study explores why cross-country collaboration on R&D with home-country inventors enhances the value of innovations that are conducted offshore. The results show that, in terms of the overall value, emerging economy subsidiaries benefit from increasing home-country involvement. In advanced economies, however, patents with the highest value are attained when the host-country and home-country inventors contribute equally to the innovation. As for the value that these R&D endeavours create for the MNC, the most valuable patents are attained when the home-country and the host-country inventors contribute equally, both in advanced and in emerging economy subsidiaries. The second study breaks down the value of innovations into two components, the value they create internally, within the MNC, and the value that they create to external firms in the host-country. The results show that innovations developed entirely in the emerging economy subsidiaries are less likely to diffuse in the MNC network, and they are also less likely to diffuse externally, in the host-country. However, for innovations which feature cross-country collaboration, the barriers which prevent internal diffusion can be overcome while, simultaneously, reducing knowledge diffusion in the host-country. The third study explores the long-term effect of cross-country collaboration on the performance of foreign inventors, and shows that it does indeed have a long-term effect, allowing them to generate high-impact patents and explore new technologies on their own. These positive effects are even more pronounced for inventors from emerging economy subsidiaries. However, the new knowledge that is generated in this way is unlikely to be integrated by the offshore subsidiaries to form new capabilities. Possible explanations are provided in the corresponding chapter. The fourth study examines two aspects of knowledge spillovers: how they can be mitigated and, if they do occur, how lost knowledge can be retrieved. Firms deploy certain strategies to prevent knowledge from spilling over. Some strategies – although they can be successful at curbing spillovers – can also make it increasingly more difficult for MNCs to retrieve knowledge after spillovers. The results show that at moderate levels of knowledge complexity coupled with wide geographic dispersion of its underlying elements can maximize the gap between internal and external appropriation. However, the relationship between the two is delicate, as minor variations could increase the rates of spillovers and decrease the rates of knowledge retrieval.

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