Violence has been found ubiquitously across human societies and throughout time. An act of violence can be defined as purposeful harm brought upon one individual as a direct or indirect result of the actions of another. The purpose of this research is to develop a quantitative approach to examining lethality using frequency distributions for location of trauma on the cranium in order to model patterns of interpersonal violence. This is accomplished through the study of a skeletal sample, from the prehispanic Chachapoya (existing around A.D. 800 – 1535), discovered at the site of Kuelap in the northern Peruvian Andes. Metric data were gathered from 81 individuals including males, females, and subadults. The data consisted of precise location of traumatic injury measured from anatomical landmarks in each of five two-dimensional views of the cranium as well as estimated diameter of impact for all lesions. The lesions were separated between perimortem (lethal) and antemortem (non-lethal) in order to explore patterns of lethality that correlate with location of injury. A statistical difference (p > 0.05) in location could not be determined when the distributions were compared in five standard two-dimensional views or between the sexes. Statistical significance (p > 0.05), however, was encountered when the entire cranium was used for the distribution. This distribution showed that perimortem injuries tend to occur more frequently on the posterior aspect of the cranium while antemortem injuries tend to occur more frequently on the anterior for this sample. These results show that a quantitative approach to location of injuries to the cranial vault can reveal new patterns of violent interactions and aid in the study of violent behavior.

22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q), also known as Velocardiofacial Syndrome or DiGeorge Syndrome, is one of the most common genetic syndromes with an incidence of 1 in 2500 to 1 in 4000 (Wang et al., 2009). It is the most identified human chromosomal microdeletion syndrome to date (Wang et al., 2009). 22q is associated with a wide spectrum of clinical features including various palate, cardiac, and immunological abnormalities (Lynch et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2009). 22q is also the most common genetic cause of velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD). Posterior cranial fossa (PCF) and cervical spine variations may influence velopharyngeal (VP) port closure. Although some studies have analyzed PCF size in individuals with 22q, there has not been extensive analysis of skull base anomalies and their correlation to velopharyngeal depth. The purpose of this study was to examine PCF measures and their effects on VP dimensions in children with 22q using a non-sedated imaging protocol. 34 participants, 17 with 22q and 17 with normal VP anatomy (age range: 4-12 years) completed the study. Participants were imaged using a 3D anatomical scan. MRIs were transferred into Amira 6.4 Visualization Volume Modeling software. Linear and angular measures were obtained in the sagittal image plane on the 3D MRI scans. Measures included: distance from the palatal plane to C1, pharyngeal depth, anterior cranial base angle, posterior cranial base angle, length of the clivus, McRae line and supraocciput of the PCF, angle of clivus, and the PCF angle formed by the McRae line and the supraocciput. It is hypothesized that shorter clivus length and smaller PCF angle between McRae line and supraocciput noted in individuals with 22q DS could be related to larger pharyngeal depth, which contributes to hypernasality typically seen in 22q. Results from this study indicate that children with 22q demonstrate larger pharyngeal depth, a more obtuse anterior cranial base angle (NSB angle), a more acute posterior cranial base angle (SBO angle), shorter length of the clivus, longer supraocciput length, and a more obtuse angle of clivus. The NSB angle was positively correlated with pharyngeal depth while the SBO angle was negatively correlated with pharyngeal depth. The angle of clivus was positively correlated with both pharyngeal depth and resonance severity.

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This thesis presents two studies related to head injury. The study presented in Chapter 1 reviewed findings of cranial movement in animal and human specimens and evaluate the validity of cranial movement due to manual manipulation in humans through engineering analysis. The study had two parts. In Part I, the literature was reviewed to determine the cranial motion in animals and humans. Engineering analysis was done in Part II to determine the amount of force necessary to cause cranial motion in the studies from Part I using skull stiffness values from published studies. Chapter 2 explored data collection methodologies used in frontal sled tests. Several data collection methodologies exist for collecting kinematic data, such as Vicon motion analysis, video analysis, and sensors. Head trajectories from motion data and accelerometer data were plotted up to maximum forward excursion of the head for eight frontal sled tests, four conducted at Virginia Tech and four at the University of Virginia. In addition, the percent difference between maximum forward excursion values from sensor and motion data were calculated. Finally, Chapter 3 discusses the literary contributions of each study and to which journals they will be submitted. / Master of Science

Objective - To compare preoperative tibial plateau leveling osteotomy planning using the common tangent method to the current conventional method and evaluate the effect on tibial translation and patellar ligament angle following rotation of the tibial plateau. Study Design – Cadaveric study. Seven paired canine pelvic limbs. Methods- Radiographs of the stifle were taken at 135° of extension prior to and following rotation of the tibial plateau under load (0N and 30N). The tibial plateau of each limb was rotated both according to the common tangent and conventional method. Tibial plateau angle (TPA), tibial translation, and the patellar ligament angles (PLA) were measured radiographically following rotation of the tibial plateau. Results- There was no significant difference between planning methods with regards to the amount of rotation of the tibial plateau or position of the tibia relative to the femur following rotation. There was no significant association between the postoperative tibial plateau angle and position of the tibia relative to the femur between groups. There was no significant difference between the patellar ligament angles following rotation based on the common tangent or conventional method preoperative TPLO planning. Conclusion- Both the conventional and common tangent TPLO planning results in adequate proximal tibial rotation to achieve a PLA of approximately 90°, thereby counteracting the compressive shear forces during ambulation. The TPA for both groups following rotation had no significant impact on the amount of cranial or caudal tibial translation relative to the femur. / Master of Science / Cranial cruciate ligament disease is one of the most common diseases of the stifle in dogs, and causes great discomfort. The tibial plateau leveling osteotomy (TPLO) procedure is designed to change the geometry of the tibia's articular surface, such that the femur no longer slides in a caudal direction during weight bearing. Conventional methods of planning do not consider the curved anatomical surface of the tibial condyles, but rather treat the condyles like a flat surface. The goal of this study was to compare the current conventional planning methods with a new technique, the common tangent method, and to evaluate if the common tangent method improves accuracy and tibial translation after surgery. Results of this study show that there was no statistically significant difference in rotation and tibial position between the two planning groups. However, it was found that the common tangent method consistently required less rotation of the tibial articular surface than the conventional method, but still achieved similar postoperative tibial translation. This implies that there may be overcorrection when performing the TPLO under the current conventional method, which could predispose the patients to strain on the caudal cruciate ligament and patellar ligament leading to discomfort. The common tangent method is a feasible way of planning for a TPLO procedure, and shows potential utility in cases where excessive tibial rotation would otherwise cause increased risk for complications or necessitate a more complex procedure.

Objective-To assess the effect of 9 mm tibial tuberosity advancement (TTA) on cranial tibial translation (CTT) in cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) deficient canine stifles. Study Design-In vitro cadaveric study. Animals-Twelve canine pelvic limbs. Methods-Each stifle was placed in a jig at 135° with a simulated quadriceps force and tibial axial force, and the distance of CTT was measured with the CCL intact (iCCL), transected (tCCL), and after performing a TTA using a 9 mm cage. In addition, a material testing machine was used to assess the force required to elicit CTT in each scenario. Results-The mean CTT for iCCL was 0.42 mm, 1.58 mm after severing the CCL, and 1.06 mm post TTA. The tCCL CTT measured without any quadriceps force was 2.59 mm. Differences between the intact and tCCL (p<0.0001) and tCCL and TTA (p=0.0003) were significant. The difference between the tCCL with and without the quadriceps force was not significant (p=0.0597). The force required to cause CTT was greater in the TTA than the tCCL up to 6mm (p<0.0001). As axial load increased, the force required to advance the tibia increased in both treatment groups (p value for overall weight effect =0.0002). Conclusions- These data confirm that TTA does reduce CTT in tCCL stifles in this model. The addition of a simulated quadriceps force to a CCL deficient stifle prior to a TTA, by itself, may not significantly lessen CTT. Clinical Relevance- While this in vitro model demonstrated that TTA reduced CTT in canine stifles with CCL transected, the modular limitations preclude extrapolation to the effect of TTA on the live dog. / Master of Science

Neste estudo, foram abordados os aspectos quantitativos do gânglio cervical cranial (GCC) esquerdo de preás (Galea spixii spixii) machos, oriundos do criatório da Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido Nordestino de Mossoró-RN. Os seguintes parâmetros foram estimados: volume do GCC, número total e tamanho dos neurônios (uni e binucleados) durante dois períodos do desenvolvimento pós-natal (maturação e envelhecimento). Para tanto, utilizamos quatro grupos etários distintos de animais: neonatos, jovens, adultos e senis. Após a eutanásia dos animais, os GCCs foram fixados (perfusão sistêmica) com solução de formoldeído (4%) em PBS, embebidos em solução de ágar (10%) e seccionados sistemática, uniforme e aleatoriamente, aplicando-se o princípio de amostragem e contagem do fractionator. Os principais resultados desta pesquisa foram: houve diferença significativa entre os grupos etários para os parâmetros: Peso Neonato: 0,00056 ; Jovem: 0,00084; Adulto: 0,00116; Senil: 0,00118. Comprimento Neonato: 1,294 ; Jovem: 2,076; Adulto: 2,304; Senil: 2,082. Largura Neonato: 0,842; Jovem: 1,028; Adulto: 1,062; Senil: 1,174. Volume ganglionar Neonato: 0,34 mm3 ; Jovem: 0,30 mm3; Adulto: 0,39 mm3; Senil: 0,63 mm3 e Volume neuronal médio de neurônios uninucleados Neonato: 2916,90 mm3; Jovem: 3550,00 mm3; Adulto: 7409,00 mm3; Senil: 6701,00 mm3. As principais conclusões deste estudo foram: (i) peso, comprimento e largura do GCC apresentaram aumento significativo de 185%, 60% e 79% respectivamente, durante o período de maturação, enquanto durante o período de envelhecimento, o peso do GCC apresentou queda de 33%, o comprimento um pequeno decréscimo de 10%, entretanto a largura, durante este mesmo período, apresentou um aumento progressivo de mais de 10%, tais alterações relacionadas com a idade refletiram no volume ganglionar, causando hipertrofia; (ii) Essa hipertrofia do GCC de preás é secundária ao desenvolvimento pós-natal (maturação e envelhecimento), aumentando em 85%, acompanhado por um aumento alométrico, da ordem de 6 vezes em relação à massa corporal, aproximadamente 622%; (iii) Há hipertrofia dos neurônios uninucleados que é secundária ao desenvolvimento pós-natal do GCC de preás, aumentando em 154% durante o período de maturação com uma pequena queda de 10% durante o envelhecimento. Finalmente, sugere-se que estudos futuros possam investigar se o tamanho dos territórios de inervação destes gânglios pode desencadear mudanças na micro e macroestrutura dos mesmos, incluindo a possibilidade de ocorrência de neurogênese, que seria estudada por meio de imunomarcadores específicos. / This study aimed at detecting whether post-natal development would exert any effect on the size and number of cranial cervical ganglion (CCG) neurons of male preas (Galea spixii spixii). Twenty left CCGs from twenty preas were harvested from the Animal Facility of the Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido Nordestino, Mossoró- RN and were divided into four different age groups: newborn, young, adult and aged subjects. The following parameters were estimated using Cavalieri\'s principle and optical fractionator and planar rotator , respectively: the volume of CCG, total number and mean volume of uni and binucleate neurons. After euthanasia, the CCGs were perfusion-fixed with a 4% formaldehyde solution in PBS, agar-embedded and, SUR vibrosectioned. The ganglion volume was 0.34 mm3 (newborn), 0.30 mm3 (young), 0.39 mm3 (adult) and 0.63 mm3 (aged animals) (p= 0,012). The mean volume of uninucleate neurons was 2,917 mm3 (newborn), 3,550 mm3 (young), 7,409 mm3 (adult) and 6,701 mm3 (aged animals) (p=0,0001). The main conclusions of this study were: (i) The CCG hypertrophy - 85% - is the result of post-natal development (maturation and ageing), (ii) a 154% increase (hypertrophy) in the volume of uninucleate neurons during the maturation is followed by a 10% atrophy of them during ageing. Future studies may investigate whether the size of the CCG\'s target-organs can affect the structural foundation of CCG and, therefore, add further fuel to the notion that a post-natal neurogenesis may indeed exist in sympathetic ganglia.