This thesis examines the role of necessity, as a defence to State responsibility, in international law. Necessity provides a State with a defence to the responsibility that would otherwise arise from its breach of an international obligation where the only way that State can safeguard an essential interest from a grave and imminent peril is to breach an obligation owed to a less imperilled State. It is a defence that has generated a considerable body of jurisprudence in recent years and yet it continues to be plagued by a perception that States have abused it in the past and by fears that States will abuse it in the future - 'necessity', declared the German Chancellor on the eve of World War I, 'knows no law'. This thesis contends that this perception is flawed and these fears are unfounded. The main claim of this thesis is that necessity operates as a safety valve within the law of State responsibility that mediates between the binding quality of international obligations and the harsh consequences that may follow from requiring compliance with those obligations at all costs. This safety valve promotes the reasonable application of international law and it recognises that international law must sometimes bend so that it does not break. The thesis bears out this claim by contending that necessity has a stronger pedigree than is commonly appreciated and that it is solidly grounded in, and its contours are constrained by, customary international law. It charts those contours by first examining the scope of the obligations to which necessity may provide a defence, which includes examining how necessity relates to fields of law that contain their own safety valves regulating emergency situations. It then proceeds to examine the conditions that a State must satisfy in order to establish necessity and it finally examines the consequences of necessity, including for the stability of international law. The thesis concludes that any suggestion that 'necessity knows no law' has no place in international law today.

In recent decades the arbitration has undergone extensive development in the Peru. However, this did not mean the absence of corruption in the arbitral proceedings. in this article the author points out some examples in which corruption manifests itself within them. Also, possible solutions are addressed with particular emphasis on competition, and its necessary condition: information. On this last, the iBA rules acquire special relevance for the resolution of conflicts of interest. / En las últimas décadas el arbitraje ha experimentado un amplio desarrollo en el Perú. Sin embargo, esto no significó la ausencia de corrupción en los procesos arbitrales. e n el presente artículo el autor señala algunos ejemplos en los que la corrupción se manifiesta dentro de ellos. Asimismo, se abordan sus posibles soluciones, con especial énfasis en la competencia y su condición necesaria: la información. s obre esta última adquieren especial relevancia las Reglas IBA para la resolución de conflictos de intereses.

This article is about the situation of the arbitration activity in Peru and how this development is affected by the phenomenon of the Judicialization. In the first part of the article, it questioned the jurisdiction attributed to arbitration. In the second part it approaches the theories of the nature of arbitration and its importance. Finally, it concludes with the concept of the judicialization and its impact on the arbitration.

Doctor Legum - LLD / Currently most international investment disputes are settled through arbitration. The origin of this dispute settlement system can be associated with the recent proliferation of over 3000 Bilateral Investment Treaties. Through this system disputes are settled by autonomous and differently constituted tribunals which have powers to render final and binding awards. The dissatisfied party has very limited opportunity to challenge the rendered award as there are no higher bodies in the hierarchy where a dissatisfied party can lodge an appeal, save for limited procedural challenges which are allowed under the system. These differently constituted tribunals at times reach diametrically opposed decisions on similar facts and those decisions stand side by side and all are considered valid. These inconsistent decisions are leading to lack of consistency and uniformity which in turn affects the legitimacy of the system as a whole. The rules of these institutions do not allow the proceedings to be held in public despite the fact that at times these tribunals question the regulatory powers of the state and state measures on service provision to its citizens. Another issue under the current system is that due to lack of coordination, arbitrators play dual roles: as counsels and arbitrators. This practice compromises the cherished principle of the rule of law. In the effort to address these concerns, stakeholders have suggested a number of possible solutions. The suggested solutions include: invoking res judicata and lis pendens principles; adopting the doctrine of precedent; applying the ‘fork in the road’ principle; adopting the margin of appreciation standard in interpretation of BITs; creating an appellate structure at ICSID and creating a treaty to treaty appellate body. This research submits that, the suggested solutions singularly and cumulatively don not address the legitimacy issues adequately. The research therefore calls for the establishment of a Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) in order to address the legitimacy issues cumulatively. It is submitted that establishing a Multilateral Investment Agreement (MAI) which provides for creating a standing international investment court with an appellate court is the only solution which addresses all the issues haunting the international investment dispute settlement system. In addition, the research suggests interim solutions which will help to increase the legitimacy of the current system pending the establishment of the MAI and the courts. The interim solutions include: establishment of the investor – state dispute adjudication Centre; effective utilisation of host state courts; mandatory publication of all awards; enhancing the effective use of member states interpretative statement; and forming a working commission to provide basic interpretation and the scope of the basic international investment law principles. These measures are only meant to improve the current system pending the establishment of the MAI and the courts. The research concludes that for the betterment of international investment law, the reform is inevitable and that the benefits would outweigh any demerits.

O presente estudo realiza uma análise multidisciplinar da arbitragem como sistema de solução de controvérsias comerciais de natureza privada, envolvendo propriedade intelectual entre empresas no plano internacional. A análise em questão apresenta-se mediante um esboço preliminar dos fundamentos dos direitos sobre a propriedade imaterial fruto da produção intelectual e, em seguida, do sistema de utilização da arbitragem comercial internacional, para, estabelecidas bases teóricas sobre os temas, possibilitar a compreensão dos principais aspectos levantados quanto ao uso do procedimento arbitral na resolução de conflitos sobre esse tema. Discorridos os tópicos, a análise dos argumentos contra e favor do uso do sistema alternativo à jurisdição estatal em disputas que tenham por objeto direitos de propriedade intelectual em conjunto com o estudo da teoria econômica em relação aos aspectos de comércio. A abordagem feita de forma interdisciplinar, utilizando-se, inclusive, de bases da chamada escola da law and economics, pretende oferecer uma forma de perceber vantagens ou desvantagens no recurso à arbitragem mediante instrumentos comuns à ciência econômica de escolha sob incerteza, como ferramenta auxiliar do Direito. / This work is the result of the proposal of an analysis about the use of international commercial arbitration in disputes among private enterprises envolving intellectual property as subject. The essay shows, first, the foundations of the intellectual property law and its value, followed by the presentation of the origins of the international arbitration system in global trade and in intellectual property cases. After settle this common basis, the paper establishes a comparission between the arguments pro and against the use of arbitration in these cases, facing those who only consider the usual justice of the courts. By using a combination of economic theory of international trade and elements from the school knowed as the modern law and economics theory, its the author intention to propose an instrumental for a rational choice of the use of arbitration in intellectual property, avoiding the simple rejection of the alternative dispute system, offering conditions to choose according to the situation.

The aim of this work with a title Solution of disputes in the area of customers contracts was desribed, analyzed and compared economic a legal aspects, advantages and disadvantages by the solution of customers contract in the arbitration and in the lawsuit. Next aim was comparison the czech law with the law in Slovakia, when it was turned to the arbitration and disputes in the area of customers contracts. Then there was desribed and analyzed the problems of the arbitration centre position and the custumers contrancts with arbitration clause, according to the law effective before and after the day of the 1 st April 2012. In conclusion there was defined some changes in legislation.

O presente estudo realiza uma análise multidisciplinar da arbitragem como sistema de solução de controvérsias comerciais de natureza privada, envolvendo propriedade intelectual entre empresas no plano internacional. A análise em questão apresenta-se mediante um esboço preliminar dos fundamentos dos direitos sobre a propriedade imaterial fruto da produção intelectual e, em seguida, do sistema de utilização da arbitragem comercial internacional, para, estabelecidas bases teóricas sobre os temas, possibilitar a compreensão dos principais aspectos levantados quanto ao uso do procedimento arbitral na resolução de conflitos sobre esse tema. Discorridos os tópicos, a análise dos argumentos contra e favor do uso do sistema alternativo à jurisdição estatal em disputas que tenham por objeto direitos de propriedade intelectual em conjunto com o estudo da teoria econômica em relação aos aspectos de comércio. A abordagem feita de forma interdisciplinar, utilizando-se, inclusive, de bases da chamada escola da law and economics, pretende oferecer uma forma de perceber vantagens ou desvantagens no recurso à arbitragem mediante instrumentos comuns à ciência econômica de escolha sob incerteza, como ferramenta auxiliar do Direito. / This work is the result of the proposal of an analysis about the use of international commercial arbitration in disputes among private enterprises envolving intellectual property as subject. The essay shows, first, the foundations of the intellectual property law and its value, followed by the presentation of the origins of the international arbitration system in global trade and in intellectual property cases. After settle this common basis, the paper establishes a comparission between the arguments pro and against the use of arbitration in these cases, facing those who only consider the usual justice of the courts. By using a combination of economic theory of international trade and elements from the school knowed as the modern law and economics theory, its the author intention to propose an instrumental for a rational choice of the use of arbitration in intellectual property, avoiding the simple rejection of the alternative dispute system, offering conditions to choose according to the situation.

In the last decades of the nineteenth century and early years of the twentieth century, Spainand the emerging Hispanic American states substantially improved their relationships. Whenand why did the prestige of Spain in Hispanic America strengthen to the extent that it favoredan active and strong participation of the Crown as an arbitrator in sensitive border confl icts,as the case of the Peruvian-Ecuadorian controversy? This article presents an approach to therole of Spain as a moral and political authority in America in the late nineteenth century, withparticular emphasis on the case of boundary arbitration between Peru and Ecuador. / En las últimas décadas del siglo XIX e inicios del siglo XX se llevó a cabo una mejora sustancialen la relación entre España y los nacientes Estados hispanoamericanos. ¿Cuándoy por qué el prestigio de España en Hispanoamérica se fortaleció al extremo de favoreceruna activa y sólida participación de la Corona como árbitro en delicados confl ictos limítrofes,como el caso de la controversia peruano-ecuatoriana? En este artículo se presentauna aproximación a la fi gura de España como autoridad moral y política en el continenteamericano en las postrimerías del siglo XIX, con particular énfasis en el caso del arbitraje delímites entre el Perú y el Ecuador.

Esta dissertação analisa as questões concernentes às tutelas de urgência antes e durante o processo arbitral (incluindo-se a forma como podem ser pleiteadas, apreciadas e efetivadas), bem como a interação entre os árbitros, o Poder Judiciário e também entre a Câmara de Arbitragem responsável pela condução do processo arbitral (no caso de arbitragem institucional). O trabalho traz uma breve análise sobre a história da arbitragem e acerca de sua natureza jurídica, com um enfoque específico às tutelas de urgência, analisando, igualmente, os regulamentos dos principais centros de arbitragens pátrios e alienígenas, bem como a legislação nacional e estrangeira sobre o tema das tutelas de urgência em arbitragem. Os principais pontos analisados referem-se: (i) às tutelas de urgência prévias à instauração da arbitragem (quando as partes já se comprometeram, por meio de cláusula compromissória ou de compromisso arbitral, a solucionar eventual lide por meio da arbitragem); (ii) às tutelas de urgência no curso de um processo arbitral; (iii) à efetivação das tutelas de urgência, a qual exige a utilização de força e, por conseguinte, depende do auxílio e de interação com o Poder Judiciário; (iv) à efetivação das tutelas de urgência proferidas em arbitragens estrangeiras; e (v) às anti-suit injunctions. / This dissertation analyses the questions regarding provisional and interim measures previously or during an arbitration proceeding (including the means they can be pleaded, analyzed and enforced), as well as the interaction between the arbitrators, the Judiciary Power and also with the Court of Arbitration responsible for the conduction of the arbitration proceeding (in the case of institutional arbitration). The study brings a brief analysis of the history of arbitration and about its legal nature, with a specific focus on provisional and interim measures, also analyzing the regulations of the main Courts of Arbitration from Brazil and from abroad, as well as the Brazilian and foreign legislation about provisional and interim measures in arbitration. The main topics analyzed are referred to: (i) provisional and interim measures previously to the beginning of the arbitration (when the parties have already committed themselves, through arbitration clause or arbitration agreement, to resolve any conflict through arbitration); (ii) provisional and interim measures during an arbitration proceeding; (iii) the enforcement of provisional and interim measures, which requires the use of force (coercive power) and, therefore, depends on the assistance and the support of the Judiciary Power; (iv) the enforcement of provisional and interim measures rendered on foreign arbitrations; and (v) the anti-suit injunctions.

O presente estudo realiza uma análise multidisciplinar da arbitragem como sistema de solução de controvérsias comerciais de natureza privada, envolvendo propriedade intelectual entre empresas no plano internacional. A análise em questão apresenta-se mediante um esboço preliminar dos fundamentos dos direitos sobre a propriedade imaterial fruto da produção intelectual e, em seguida, do sistema de utilização da arbitragem comercial internacional, para, estabelecidas bases teóricas sobre os temas, possibilitar a compreensão dos principais aspectos levantados quanto ao uso do procedimento arbitral na resolução de conflitos sobre esse tema. Discorridos os tópicos, a análise dos argumentos contra e favor do uso do sistema alternativo à jurisdição estatal em disputas que tenham por objeto direitos de propriedade intelectual em conjunto com o estudo da teoria econômica em relação aos aspectos de comércio. A abordagem feita de forma interdisciplinar, utilizando-se, inclusive, de bases da chamada escola da law and economics, pretende oferecer uma forma de perceber vantagens ou desvantagens no recurso à arbitragem mediante instrumentos comuns à ciência econômica de escolha sob incerteza, como ferramenta auxiliar do Direito. / This work is the result of the proposal of an analysis about the use of international commercial arbitration in disputes among private enterprises envolving intellectual property as subject. The essay shows, first, the foundations of the intellectual property law and its value, followed by the presentation of the origins of the international arbitration system in global trade and in intellectual property cases. After settle this common basis, the paper establishes a comparission between the arguments pro and against the use of arbitration in these cases, facing those who only consider the usual justice of the courts. By using a combination of economic theory of international trade and elements from the school knowed as the modern law and economics theory, its the author intention to propose an instrumental for a rational choice of the use of arbitration in intellectual property, avoiding the simple rejection of the alternative dispute system, offering conditions to choose according to the situation.