La graine est une structure de dissémination et de résistance jouant un rôle clé dans la vie de laplante. L’arabette des dames (Arabidopsis thaliana) et le maïs (Zea Mays) sont deux espècesmodèles étudiées pour le développement de la graine. Leurs graines possèdent deuxcompartiments filiaux : l’embryon (la future plante) et l’albumen (un compartiment deréserves). Le développement normal de la graine passe par une coordination entre ces deuxcompartiments qui implique des communications étroites (nutritionnelles, signalisations) à leurinterface. L’interface embryon/albumen est constituée des couches cellulaires externes del’embryon et de l’albumen ainsi que de structures apoplastiques les séparant telles que lacuticule et la gaine embryonnaire chez l’arabette. Dans une première partie, une analysetranscriptomique des tissus à l’interface embryon/albumen chez le maïs a permis d’identifierune nouvelle région se composant des couches d’albumen amylacé au contact de l’embryon.En parallèle, nous avons utilisé la technologie CRISPR/Cas9 pour cibler des gènes candidatspotentiellement impliqués dans la communication albumen/embryon. Dans une seconde partie,la fonction et les caractéristiques de la gaine embryonnaire, produite par l’albumen et déposéeà la surface de l’embryon ont été étudiées chez l’arabette. Nous avons montré que cette structurese maintient sur la plantule après germination ce qui va à l’encontre de la vision classiqueconsidérant la cuticule comme la couche la plus externe de la jeune plantule. Une approche demicroscopie à force atomique couplée à des caractérisations de mutants, a permis de montrerque cette gaine a de fortes propriétés antiadhésives aidant à la germination. Dans une dernièrepartie, la voie de signalisation permettant le contrôle de l’intégrité de la cuticule chez l’arabettea été complétée par la découverte d’un peptide, produit par l’embryon, clivé dans l’albumen etliant des récepteurs dans l’embryon déclenchant la fermeture des trous de la cuticule et laformation d’une structure continue et fonctionnelle. / Angiosperm seeds comprise two zygotic compartments generated by double fertilization: theembryo, which will give the future plant, and the endosperm which surrounds and nourishesthe embryo. Harmonious seed development requires the coordination and cooperation of thesetwo compartments, implicating an intricate and sustained communication at their interface. Theaim of this thesis was to characterize some of the important characteristics of this interface inthe two model species Arabidopsis thaliana and maize (Zea Mays). The embryo/endosperminterface is formed by the external cell layers of the embryo and by the endosperm cellsimmediately adjacent to the embryo. These cell populations contribute to specific apoplasticstructures such as the embryonic cuticle and the embryo sheath in Arabidopsis. However, littleis known about this interface in maize. In a first part of this thesis, transcriptomic analysis ofembryo/endosperm interface in maize coupled with in situ hybridization has led to theidentification of a new endosperm domain composed of endosperm cell layers in immediatecontact with the expanding embryo, and potentially involved in nutrient movement between thetwo tissues. A reverse genetics approach has been developed based on CRISPR/Cas9technology to target candidate genes potentially involved in embryo/endospermcommunication. In the second part of the thesis, the function and characteristics of the embryosheath, produced by the endosperm and deposited on embryo surface, have been investigatedin Arabidopsis. The maintenance of the sheath on seedlings post germination has beendemonstrated, contradicting the classical view that the cuticle forms the most external structureon the seedling at germination. Atomic force microscopy and phenotypic characterization ofmutants demonstrate the strong anti-adhesive properties of the sheath, which facilitatecotyledon escape during germination. In a last part of the thesis, the apoplastic signallingpathway controlling cuticle integrity in Arabidopsis has been completed by the identificationof a peptide, produced by the embryo, and cleaved by an endosperm-specific protease, whichbinds to receptors at the embryo surface, leading to the closure of gaps in the cuticle and thegeneration of a continuous and functional structure.

Information on the biosynthetic origin and functional advantage of marine mollusc natural products is not only essential to our understanding of chemical ecology, but to the development and responsible production of therapeutic agents. As demonstrating in situ activity is methodologically hindered, functions inferred by in vitro activity have been assumed for many secondary metabolites. The anatomical and ontogenetic distribution of natural products can not only provide information on the biosynthesis and storage of metabolites, but identify selective pressures likely to affect survivorship at a specific life stage. Thus, dissection and chemical analysis of distinct tissues, in combination with histochemistry may offer a valuable approach. Marine gastropods of the Muricidae are renowned for the ancient dye Tyrian purple, which evolves from choline esters of bromoindoxyl sulphate in the hypobranchial gland through a series of enzymatic and photo-oxidative reactions. Prochromogen hydrolysis by arylsulphatase liberates neuromuscular active choline esters and cytotoxic bromoindole precursors, which also occur in muricid egg masses. Although visual accounts of dye pigments in the muricid gonoduct suggest precursors may be incorporated into egg masses from a maternal source, their biosynthetic origin and the evolutionary significance of the hypobranchial gland is unknown. Thus, the Muricidae, and in particular Dicathais orbita upon which most previous research has been focused, is an ideal model for this novel approach to natural product research. To confirm observations of dye pigments in muricid gonoducts and gain an understanding of their anatomical distribution, a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method was developed to simultaneously quantify pigments, precursors and the prochromogen, tyrindoxyl sulfate. The prochromogen was not only detected in albumen and capsule gland extracts, but bioactive intermediates and the dye 6,6’-dibromoindigo were also present in the latter. These findings provided preliminary evidence for the maternal provision of prochromogens in egg masses of D. orbita and identified regions within which to conduct histochemical investigations. Tyrindoxyl sulphate was also detected in male prostate gland extracts, along with the dibromoindigo isomer, 6,6’-dibromoindirubin and its oxidative precursor, 6-bromoisatin. This not only implies physiological differences exist between male and female gonoducts, but that these secondary metabolites are not solely intended for egg masses and may hold significance throughout the life cycle. Histomorphological inspection of the pallial gonoduct-hypobranchial gland complex was conducted over the annual cycle to determine a mechanism for precursor transfer between these structures. Although an anatomical connection was not detected, the secretions of two hypobranchial cell types thought to be involved in Tyrian purple synthesis were of remarkable biochemical similarity to those of various capsule and albumen gland lobes. Together these findings implied the potential for natural product synthesis within the pallial gonoduct of D. orbita. To establish the role of these glandular lobes in the incorporation of intracapsular fluid and capsule laminae, identical histochemical techniques were applied to transverse capsule wall sections. Biochemical correlations not only provided a simple method of deciphering the complex process of encapsulation in neogastropods, but effectively identified the destination of gonoduct secretions in egg capsules of D. orbita. Comparisons of capsule and gonoduct biochemistry revealed that the intracapsular fluid and inner capsule wall are secreted by the posterior capsule gland lobe, the middle lamina by the lateral lobes and the outer layers by the dorsal lobe, albumen and pedal glands. Investigation into the location of regulatory enzymes and precursors was conducted to establish the biosynthetic origin of Tyrian purple prochromogens and mechanisms governing bioactive precursor synthesis. Novel histochemical techniques for the localization of bromoperoxidase, the enzyme thought to facilitate prochromogen bromination, and tyrindoxyl sulphate were developed and applied to gonoduct, hypobranchial gland, and encapsulated larvae sections. Standard staining reactions for the indole precursor, tryptophan, and arylsulphatase were also applied. The histochemical approach adopted revealed that tyrindoxyl sulphate is de novo biosynthesized through the post-translational bromination of dietary derived tryptophan. Two biosynthetic sites were identified, one related to hypobranchial secondary metabolism and the second of significance to the presence of bioactive precursors in muricid egg masses. Tryptophan is stored within secretory cells of the lateral hypobranchial epithelium and once exocytosed, is united with bromoperoxidase from supportive cells to form tyrindoxyl sulphate. Prochromogen synthesis also occurs in the subepithelial vascular sinus for storage and secretion by medial hypobranchial secretory cells. Bioactive precursor synthesis on the epithelial surface is regulated by the liberation of arylsulphatase from adjacent supportive cells. These findings not only provide evidence for de novo biosynthesis of Tyrian purple precursors, but are first account of natural product biosynthesis within the gastropod hypobranchial gland. Together these findings imply a naturally selected function for the synthesis of bioactive indoles in hypobranchial gland secretions of the Muricidae and Gastropoda. Tyrindoxyl sulphate is also transported within the vascular sinus to lateral and dorsal capsule gland lobes where bromoperoxidase and arylsulphatase also occur. Arylsulphatase was also detected within the albumen gland, which along with the posterior capsule gland lobe, acts as a storage site for dietary tryptophan. Thus, tyrindoxyl sulphate and the constituents for prochromogen and precursor biosynthesis are introduced to intracapsular fluid and capsule laminae by the capsule gland. Histochemistry in combination with LC-MS revealed an identical biosynthetic profile within larval vitellus, which is elaborated during oogenesis and may also receive secretions from the albumen gland. Due to the absence of a hypobranchial gland in veligers, it appears that pelagic larvae rely on vitelline natural products until settlement and metamorphous. These findings together with the in situ antimicrobial activity of bromoindoles suggest Tyrian purple precursors are incorporated into muricid egg masses as a maternal investment in larval defence against pathogens. The results of this investigation clearly highlight the benefits of adopting a histochemical approach to natural product research. This novel alternative to radioisotopes and in situ demonstration of bioactivity, can not only aid in the elucidation of secondary metabolic pathways and chemically mediated interactions, but identify mechanisms of metabolite regulation and differentiate between biosynthetic and storage tissues. Apart from providing insight into the ecological significance of muricid secondary metabolites, the biosynthetic information provided is valuable to our understanding of chemical phylogeny and biosynthetic enzyme sequencing for the environmentally sound development of natural products as biomedical agents.

Abstract The salt print is an important part of photography, both in its historic value and in the tonal range it can provide. This tonal range is greater than any other photographic printing process available to date attributed to the inherent masking ability of the metallic silver. However the intrinsic production problems have made it a 'forgotten' process. There are five key problems. 1. The difficulties in achieving the potential extensive tonal range. 2. The varying colour of the print. 3. Staining that appears in the print, during and after processing. 4. Instability and longevity of the salt print. 5. Contradictory and inaccurate information in material published on the salt print. Although the emphasis of the research is on exploring and controlling the colour and tonal range, the staining problems and stability of the print are also addressed. The materials used for contact negatives today vary in both capture and output, from analogue film processed in the traditional wet darkroom to a variety of transparent film printed from digital files. Inadequate density and tonal range can affect all types of negatives. To provide sufficient exposure time for the salt prints extended tonal range adjustments to the negative were necessary. These long exposures then converted sufficient silver salts to the image making metallic silver, utilising the intrinsic self-masking process. Ultimately this research has uncovered ways to control colour and tonal range and certain aesthetic qualities of the salt print, while simultaneously resolving some of the conflicts in published information. Accurate and consistent methods of processing eliminate staining, providing some stability to the print. The activities and steps carried out to make a salt print are manual; precise duplication is therefore almost unattainable. Nevertheless, although tests on a densitometer may display numeric differences, visual differences are barely noticeable.

Ce travail de thèse est consacré à l'étude des matériaux granulaires cimentés composés d'un assemblage dense de particules et d'une matrice remplissant partiellement l'espace entre les particules. Cette étude a été plus particulièrement appliquée au cas de l'albumen de blé, modélisé comme un assemblage de granules d'amidon liés entre eux par une matrice protéique, afin de comprendre les origines physiques de la friabilité (blés hard, soft, durum) des types de blé. Une modélisation numérique basée sur une discrétisation sur réseau a permis de prendre en compte la déformation et la rupture des phases et de leurs interfaces. Nous avons mis en évidence, par une étude paramétrique en compression et en traction simples, trois régimes de rupture caractérisés par l'endommagement des particules en fonc- tion de la fraction volumique de la matrice et de l'adhésion à l'interface entre les particules et la matrice. La microstructure granulaire contrôle la concentration des contraintes, mise en évidence par leurs densités de probabilité, et le mode de fissuration du milieu. Une comparaison a été réalisée avec la méthode des éléments discrets dans le cas de la transmission des forces. Des expériences de compression simple sur un matériau modèle ont permis de valider les résultats numériques. Dans les deux cas, numérique et expérimental, l'endommagement des particules est gouverné par une ténacité relative à l'interface particule-matrice qui combine la fraction volumique de la matrice et l'adhésion à l'interface. Nous avons également élaboré un modèle théorique simple permettant de prendre en compte les effets de structure granulaire pour prédire les seuils de rupture et les modules élastiques en traction et en compression. Le rapprochement entre nos résultats et les données relatives à l'endommagement des granules d'amidon pour différentes variétés de blé suggère que l'adhésion à l'interface entre la matrice protéique et les gra- nules d'amidon est contrôlée par le volume de puroindolines.

Le grain de maïs est composé de 3 compartiments : l’embryon et l’albumen issus de la double fécondation et l’enveloppe d’origine maternelle. Le développement du grain et l’accumulation de réserves demande l’établissement d’une communication étroite entre l’embryon et l’albumen pour coordonner leur développement respectif. Si, des régulateurs majeurs impliqués dans le développement de la graine d’Arabidopsis ont été décrits, ces connaissances restent parcellaires chez les céréales. Les objectifs de ma thèse consistaient d’une part à étudier le contrôle de la communication entre l’embryon et l’albumen et d’autre part la régulation du remplissage du grain de maïs. Par l’analyse de lignées transgéniques sous exprimant ZmZHOUPI (ZmZOU-RNAi), nous avons établi que ce facteur de transcription à domaine bHLH, bien que s’exprimant exclusivement dans l’albumen, affecte significativement le développement de l’embryon (taille de l’embryon, persistance du suspenseur). L’analyse de données RNAseq (grains sauvages versus grains ZmZOU-RNAi) a permis d’identifier des gènes cibles potentiels de ZmZOU. De plus, nous avons montré que 3 facteurs de transcription de type bHLH homologues d’INDUCER OF CBP EXPRESSION (ICE) forment un partenariat avec ZmZOU.D’autre part, nous avons étudié les homologues d'ABA INSENSITIVE3, FUSCA3 et LEAFY COTYLEDON2 (AFL) qui forment un réseau de facteurs de transcription, à domaine B3, régulant l’accumulation d’huile et de protéines de réserves dans l’embryon d’Arabidopsis. Grâce à des analyses phylogénétiques et d’expression, nous avons établi que chez le maïs le réseau AFL, constitué de 5 membres (ZmAFLs), est partiellement conservé. Par dosages et analyse d’expression, nous avons montré que ZmAFL4, en particulier, est impliqué dans le contrôle de la biosynthèse de l’amidon dans l’albumen. / Maize kernel is composed of three major compartments: an embryo and an endosperm both produced by double fertilization and the maternally derived seed coat. Seed development and reserves accumulation demands coordination and thus communication between embryo and endosperm allowing specific growth of each compartment. While major regulators involved in seed development have been already described in Arabidopsis, knowledge in cereals remains limited. My thesis purposes were to study on one hand the control of communication between embryo and endosperm and on the other hand regulation of maize kernel filling.By analysis of transgenic lines knock down ZmZHOUPI (ZmZou-RNAi), we showed that this bHLH domain transcription factor, exclusively expressed in endosperm, affect significantly embryo development, size of embryo proper and suspensor persistence. RNAseq data analyses let find putative direct targets of ZmZOU. Additionally, we identified ZmZOU partners, 3 bHLH domain transcription factor homologs of INDUCER OF CBP EXPRESSION (ICE).Furthermore, we studied homologs of three B3 domain transcription factors named ABA INSENSITIVE3, FUSCA3 et LEAFY COTYLEDON2 (AFL) which form a regulatory network governing oil and seed storage proteins accumulation in Arabidopsis embryo. By phylogenetic and expression analysis, we established that 5 genes (ZmAFLs) constitute in maize a partially conserved AFL network. Through dosage and expression analysis, we established that particularly ZmAFL4 is involved in starch biosynthesis regulation.