In general, the bearing alloys have two types of microstructure i.e., either a soft matrix with discrete hard particles or a continuous matrix of the harder metal with small amount of the softer metal finely dispersed in it. The aluminium and copper based bearing alloys which are widely studied fall in the second category. However, the bearing materials which have been studied have micron sized dispersoids. In recent times, it is possible to produce nanoscale dispersoids in a hard matrix by the novel processing route of rapid solidification. This offers an opportunity to study the small length scale effect on tribological processes. In this thesis, we deal with aluminium alloys where nanoscaled dispersions of lead, bismuth and indium are produced by rapid solidification processing. Chapter 1 of the thesis is an introduction, followed by Chapter 2, which reviews the literature on nanomaterials. Special attention is given to the monotectic system, followed by a brief description on friction and wear of materials which is necessary for our present investigation. The details of experimental and characterisation techniques are given in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4, we present a brief study of white metal bearings (babbit). Tin-based babbit of composition, Sn-6wt% Cu-llwt% Sb was studied. The study of babbit was mainly carried out with the idea that it could serve as a benchmark for subsequent studies in aluminium alloys, in terms of tribological properties. In particular, we have carried out a detailed electron microscopic investigation on the phases present in the bearing alloy. The friction and wear behaviour of this material confirms the proper calibration of our setup for wear studies. This is followed by a detailed study on the synthesis, microstructure and tribological behaviour of nanodispersed aluminium alloys, Al-6wt% Pb and Al-10wt% Pb in Chapter 5. For comparison, we have also studied melt-spun aluminium without dispersoids. Detailed electron microscopic characterisation indicates that lead has a cube on cube orientation relationship with the aluminium matrix, and the particles exhibit a lognormal distribution with the mode of the particle size distribution being 15 nm. The pin on disc results suggest a distinct lowering of coefficient of friction corresponding to pure aluminium (μ= 0.40) and as cast aluminium-lead alloys (μ= 0.41). Detailed SEM studies indicate a tribolayer consisting primarily of Al, Pb and Fe. The later comes from the counterface material. Our results clearly indicate that at an early stage, little or no oxidation takes place at the sliding interface. TEM observations indicate significant deformation of lead particles in the sub-surface region. The observations suggest spreading of the lead, which acts as a lubricating layer. Wear behaviour is primarily adhesive and follows Archard's wear law. However, the rate of wear is less than that reported by other investigators on micronsized lead dispersions in aluminium. In Chapter 6, we present the results for alloys dispersed with nanosized indium and bismuth. We show that indium particles on melt-spinning exhibit both cubic and tetragonal crystal structure. The indium particles are coarser (with a mode of 25 nm) than the lead and bismuth particles (which have mode of 15nm). The bismuth containing alloys have a lower wear rate and coefficient of friction compared to lead and indium alloys. However, both indium and bismuth particles do not follow Archard's wear law and the wear vs load graph shows a non-linear behaviour. The results are discussed in terms of known mechanisms of the coefficient of friction and wear. Chapter 7 gives the salient conclusions while in Chapter 8 we discuss some of the unanswered questions and the potential for future work in this field.

<p>Commercial alloys are continuously developed to improve their performance. Therefore it is important to develop new optimisation software, which could be used in development of new materials or in materials selection. In this study the mechanical properties which are important in materials selection in mechanical design are investigated. Two types of materials are analysed, aluminium alloys and stainless steels but focus will be on the aluminium alloys.</p><p>Thermodynamic analysis has been used to evaluate the effect of the microstructure. Solid solution hardening has been successfully modelled for both aluminium alloys and stainless steels and follows the theories by Labusch and Nabarro. The precipitation hardening is most dominant for the hardenable aluminium alloys, but the non-hardenable alloys also increase their strength from precipitation hardening. The non-hardenable alloys are divided into tempers, which differ in the amount of strain hardening. This has also been modelled successfully.</p><p>Combining these fundamental results with multiple regression, models for mechanical properties have been created. Separate models are developed for wrought aluminium alloys and stainless steels. For the aluminium alloys this includes the solid solution hardening and the precipitation hardening. For the stainless steels the thickness, nitrogen content and ferrite content are included together with the solid solution hardening.</p>

This thesis systematically investigates the effects of a recently developed modified ageing procedure of aluminium alloys, termed the T6I6 temper, on the microstructural development and mechanical properties of the Al ??? Mg ??? Si - Cu alloy 6061. For the T6I6 temper, a conventional single stage T6 temper is interrupted by an ageing period at a reduced temperature (65??C) to facilitate secondary precipitation, before resuming the final ageing at the temperature of the initial T6 treatment. The T6I6 temper was found to cause simultaneous increases in tensile properties, hardness, and toughness as compared with 6061 T6. Al ??? Mg ??? Si ??? Cu alloys are medium strength alloys widely used in the automotive industry and their further improvement is underpinned by stringent demands for weight reduction placed on the transportation industry in recent years. The potential for further improvement of the mechanical properties was found in the control of secondary precipitation that may take place even in some fully aged alloys when exposed to reduced temperatures. The overall improvement in the mechanical properties of 6061 T6I6 was attributed to the formation of finer and more densely dispersed precipitates in the final microstructure. The refinement of precipitates was facilitated by control of the precipitation processes and gradual evolution of the microstructure throughout each stage of the T6I6 treatment. The results indicated that the concentration and the chemical environment of the vacancies controlled the precipitation processes in this alloy. Findings also show that the proportion of the different precipitate phases present in the final microstructure, as well as the amount of the solute in these precipitates, can be controlled and modified utilizing secondary precipitation. A number of analytical techniques were used in this study. The evolution of the microstructure was studied using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), High Resolution TEM (HRTEM) and Three Dimensional Atom Probe (3DAP). Vacancy-solute interactions were studied using Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy (PALS) and 3DAP. The distribution of the solute was studied using 3DAP and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was used to identify precipitation reactions and to determine the stability of vacancy-associated aggregates.

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The vehicles industry is facing increasing demands for fuel efficiency and cost reduction due to environmental legislation, sustainability and customer demands. Therefore, there is a great need to develop and produce lightweight components by using materials and processes that offer higher specific strength and/or design optimization. Semi‐solid aluminium casting offers design freedom and castings with lower shrinkage and gas entrapment defects compared to high pressure die castings. The lack of understanding of microstructure and defect formation, and design data, for semi‐solid castings is a barrier for foundries and designers in the vehicles industry to use semi‐solid castings. In this study, the effect of two grain refiners on slurry formation and surface segregation of semi‐solid Al‐7Si‐0.3Mg castings produced by the Rheometal™ process was evaluated. The influence of grain refinement on primary α‐Al grain size, shape factor and solid fraction was analysed in addition to the solute content of the surface segregation layer. The influence of magnesium on the formation of intermetallic phases during solidification and the heat treatment response of Al‐7Si‐Mg semi‐solid castings was investigated. The magnesium content was varied from 0.3 to 0.6wt.% and the semi-solid castings were analysed in the T5 and T6 conditions. Energy dispersive spectroscopy was used to identify the intermetallic phases formed during solidification. Tensile testing was performed and the results were correlated to the magnesium and silicon concentration measured in the interior of the α‐Al globules formed during slurry preparation. The results suggest that the addition of grain refiner decreases the solid fraction obtained in the Rheometal™ process. However, no significant effect was observed on the α‐Al grain size and shape factor. A good correlation was obtained between the magnesium concentration in the interior of the α‐Al globules formed during slurry preparation and the offset yield strength for all alloys. The low magnesium solubility in α‐Al at temperatures in the solidification range of the Al‐7Si‐Mg alloys is suggested to be the reason for the low hardening response for the T5 heat treatment compared to the T6 condition.

Le soudage par friction (Friction Stir Welding - FSW) est un processus efficace de se joindre des alliages d'aluminium à haute résistance en évitant les défauts que l'on trouve habituellement lorsque les techniques de soudage classiques sont utilisés. L'industrie de l'aviation a montré un grand intérêt pour cette méthode de soudage, tant pour l'union des alliages semblables comme pour dissemblables. Cependant, ce processus entraîne des changements de microstructure dépendantes des conditions de traitement thermique ou thermomécanique. Le contact électrique entre les différentes zones de microstructures, à son tour, peut conduire à un couplage galvanique entre les différentes zones. Dans la présente étude, le soudage FSW a été utilisé pour joindre deux alliages d'aluminium dissemblables,AA2024-T3 et AA7475-T651. La résistance à la corrosion des joints soudés a été évaluée par des tests électrochimiques, en particulier, les mesures de potentiel en circuit ouvert(OCP), les courbes de polarisation, et des mesures de spectroscopie d'impédance électrochimique, soit globale (EIS) ou local (LEIS) en solution de 0,1 M Na2SO4 ou 0,1MNa2SO4 + 1 mM NaCl. Les tests électrochimiques ont montré l'effet de couplage galvanique dans les joints soudés. La résistance à la corrosion intergranulaires et la résistance à corrosion par exfoliation des joints soudés ont également été évaluées et comparées à celles du AA2024-T3 et les alliages AA7475-T651 non soudées. Les résultats ont montré une réactivité accrue des joints soudés en comparaison avec les alliages non soudés en notant l'attaque plus intense sur l'alliage AA7475-T651. L'identification des zones cathodiques et anodiques dans les joints soudées ont été évaluée par un test consistant à déposer un gel(agar) avec l'indicateur universel et il a été observé que l'alliage AA2024-T3 a agi en tant que cathode, tandis que la AA7475- T651 comme anode. Par ailleurs, le dégagement d'hydrogène a été observée dans la région d'interface entre la zone affectée thermomécaniquement et l'alliage AA7475-T651 affectée par la chaleur. Les résultats des essais de LEIS effectuées dans différentes zones des deux alliages soudés par FSW ont montré l'engagement galvanique à l'interface entre eux pour de courtes durées d'analyse etde déplacement de la région la plus active dans le temps de test pour l'alliage AA7475-T651,plus précisément à l'interface entre la zone affectée thermomécaniquement et la thérmique affectée de cette alliage. / Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is an efficient process of joining high strength aluminum alloys avoiding defects that are usually created when conventional welding techniques are used. The aircraft industry has shown great interest in this welding method, both for welding of similar or dissimilar alloys. However, this process causes microstructural changes that are dependent on the thermal or thermomechanical conditions applied. Electrical contact between zones of different microstructures, in turn, can result in galvanic coupling. In the present study, FSW was used to join two dissimilar aluminum alloys, AA2024-T3 and AA7475-T651 and the effect of this processon the corrosion resistance of the welded joints and on the microstructure of the alloys was evaluated. For corrosion resistance evaluation, electrochemical tests were used, specifically,open circuit potential measurements (OCP) as a function of time of exposure time to the corrosive environment, polarization tests, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, global (EIS) orlocal (LEIS), in two solutions, either 0.1 M Na2SO4 or 0.1M Na2SO4 + 1 mM NaCl. The electrochemical tests showed galvanic coupling effects in the welded joints. Microstructural characterization was carried out by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy,transmission electron microscopy and differencial scanning calorimetry. The welded affected zones showed significant microstructural changes indicated by precipitation and dissolution of precipitates that affect the localized corrosion resistance. Intergranular and exfoliation corrosion resistance of the welded joints were also evaluated and compared to those of unwelded AA2024-T3 and AA7475-T651 alloys. The results showed increased susceptibility of welded joints to these forms of corrosion in comparison with the unwelded alloys with more severe attack associated tothe AA7475-T651 alloy. Identification of anodic and cathodic areas due to galvanic coupling in the welded joints was evaluated by a test consisting in depositing a gel layer (ágar-ágar) with universal indicator on the surface of the welded alloys. The AA2024-T3 alloy worked as cathode,while the AA7475-T651 as anode in the galvanic coupling. Furthermore, hydrogen evolution was observed at the interface region between the thermomechanically affected zone and the heat affected alloy AA7475-T651 showing that cathodic reactions also occurred on this last alloy. LEIS results obtained in different zones of the two FSW welded alloys showed galvanic coupling at the interface between them for short test times and displacement of the most active region to theAA7475-T651 alloy, at longer periods of test, specifically to the interface between the thermomechanically affected and the heat affected zones of this last alloy. / A soldagem por fricção (Friction Stir Welding - FSW) é um processo eficiente de unir ligas dealumínio de alta resistência evitando defeitos que são usualmente criados quando técnicasconvencionais de soldagem são utilizadas. A indústria aeronáutica tem mostrado grande interesseneste método de soldagem, tanto para a união de ligas similares como dissimilares. Entretanto,este processo causa modificações microestruturais dependentes das condições de tratamentotérmico ou termomecânico. Contato elétrico entre zonas de microestruturas diferentes, por sua vez,pode resultar em acoplamento galvânico. No presente estudo, a soldagem por FSW foi usada paraunir duas ligas de alumínio dissimilares, AA2024-T3 e AA7475-T651 e o efeito desta soldagem naresistência à corrosão das juntas soldadas e na microestrutura das ligas foi avaliada. Nainvestigação da resistência à corrosão foram utilizados ensaios eletroquímicos, especificamente,medidas de potencial de circuito aberto (OCP) em função do tempo de exposição ao meio corrosivo,ensaios de polarização e de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica, global (EIS) ou local(LEIS), em duas soluções, seja 0,1 M Na2SO4 ou 0,1 M Na2SO4 + 1 mM NaCl. Os ensaioseletroquímicos evidenciaram efeito de acoplamento galvânico nas juntas soldadas. Acaracterização microestrutural foi realizada por microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica devarredura, microscopia eletrônica de transmissão e por calorimetria diferencial. As zonas afetadaspela solda tiveram importantes modificações na microestrutura indicadas pela precipitação edissolução de precipitados que afetam a resistência à corrosão localizada. A resistência à corrosãointergranular e a resistência à esfoliação das juntas soldadas também foram avaliadas ecomparadas com as das ligas AA2024-T3 e AA7475-T651 não soldadas. Os resultados mostraramaumento da suscetibilidade das juntas soldadas a estas formas de corrosão em comparação comas ligas não soldadas sendo observado ataque mais severo na liga AA7475-T651. A identificaçãodas áreas anódicas e catódicas resultantes do acoplamento galvânico nas juntas soldadas foirealizada por teste que consistiu na deposição de camada de gel (ágar-ágar) com indicadoruniversal na superfície das ligas soldadas. A liga AA2024-T3 atuou como cátodo, enquanto aAA7475-T651, como ânodo no par galvânico. Além disso, evolução de hidrogênio foi observada naregião de interface entre a zona termomecanicamente afetada e a termicamente afetada da ligaAA7475-T651 mostrando que reações catódicas também ocorreram localmente nesta última liga.Resultados de LEIS obtidos nas diferentes zonas das duas ligas soldadas por FSW mostraramacoplamento galvânico na interface entre elas para tempos curtos de ensaio e deslocamento daregião mais ativa com o tempo de ensaio para a liga AA7475-T651, mais precisamente para ainterface entre a zona termomecanicamente afetada e a térmicamente afetada desta liga.

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