This thesis deals with still less expolited species of small fruit, evaluation of its physical and chemical parameters and proposal of a new soft drink from one of the studied species of furit. Firstly, for the characterisation of basic nutrition parameters (dry matter, content of organic acids and saccharides) and biologicaly active substances (vitamin C, anthocyanins and phenolic compounds) suitable titration, spectrophotometric, chromatographic and electrophoretic methods were chosen, optimized and validated. The sample preparation procedure was optimized as well. For three years (2010–2012) the content of listed parameters was monitored in some cultivars of five species of small fruit: in seven cultivars of sea buckthorn, in ten cultivars of cornelian cherry, in twelve cultivars of rowanberry, in two cultivars of chokeberry and in seventeen cultivars of elderberry. By means of Duncan’s test, analysis of principal components (PCA) and cluster analysis (CLU) the main differences between studied cultivars were observed mainly in sea buckthorn and rowanberry, where single cultivars were easily distinguishable from others on the basis of genetic origin. On the basis of comparison of determined parameters in studied species of fruit and with collaboration with fruit processing company the suitable species of fruit for commercial utilization was chosen – elderberry, as a important source of anthocyanins and phenolic compounds. A new soft drink as a proposal of utilization of this fruit was created – fruit juice or nectar with portion of elderberry juice. Mixed juices and nectars with various composition were prepared from elderberry and grape juice and the sensory analysis of these drinks was performed. The best evaluated were 100% fruit juices prepared with 30–50% portion of elderberry juice. The composition was jurally protected. On the basis of this protection the product consisted from 100% fruit juice with 10% of elderberry component mixed with apple and grape juice was introduced to the market by the fruit processing company.

Reducing disease and increasing fruit quality in vigorous vineyards with dense canopies is demanding of time and resources; unfortunately, vineyards of this nature are common in humid environments. This study investigated the effectiveness with which vine capacity and water status could be regulated as well as if they related to fruit quality and wine sensory perception. The treatments regulating vine size and water status were under-trellis groundcover, root manipulation, rootstocks, and irrigation. Treatments were arranged in a strip-split-split plot design before the introduction of the irrigation treatment resulted in incomplete replication in each block. Treatment levels were under-trellis cover crop (CC) compared to under-trellis herbicide (Herb); root restriction bags (RBG) compared to no root manipulation (NRM); three compared rootstocks (101-14, 420-A, riparia Gloire); low water stress (LOW) compared to high water stress (HIGH). Vines grown with RBG and CC regulated vegetative growth more so than conventional treatments, resulting in 56% and 23% greater cluster exposure flux availability (CEFA). High water stress (HIGH) and RBG reduced stem water potential and discriminated less against 13C. Vines grown with RBG and CC consistently reduced harvest berry weight by 17 and 6% compared to conventional treatments. Estimated phenolics were consistently increased by RBG and were correlated with berry weight, vine capacity and CEFA. Sensory attributes were significantly distinguishable between wines produced from vines that differed in both vine capacity and water status, amongst other responses. Treatments have been identified that can alter the sensory perception of wines, with the potential to improve wine quality. / Master of Science

The pomegranate fruit is one of the high valued crops, but there is insufficient information regarding the fruit properties in South Africa. The aim of the study was to evaluate the physico-chemical properties as well as total phenols, anthocyanin, antioxidant, organic sugars and acids of cultivar Wonderful on three locations of the Western Cape. This study was conducted on mature pomegranate fruits harvested in the 2012 and 2013 seasons. Fruit weight (g), length (mm), and width (mm), peel/aril colour and total arils weights (g) were measured. Fruits were also analysed for total soluble solids (TSS) or °Brix), titratable acidity (TA) and juice pH. Results of the study showed that there were significant differences in all measured factors with the exception of % aril yield between the three locations. Though varied per season, fruits produced at Bonnievalle had better physical and chemical properties than at the other localities. With the exception of Aril hue angle, all measured parameters had significant interaction effect regardless of locality (P<0.05). Total soluble solids content varied from 16.0–17.3 (°Brix), pH values from 2.7–3.0, titratable acid content varied from 1.3–1.7 and maturity index from 9.7–13.4. The anthocyanin, total phenols and antioxidant were in order of 772–1134; 1611–1834 and 12.57–14.84. Organic acids (Citric and Malic) showed differences while Acetic acid was not significant in all areas and organic sugar (fructose, Glucose and Sucrose) all had significant differences. It can also be concluded that changes in colour of peel and arils of pomegranate (cv. Wonderful) was mostly as a result of seasonal variation as well as growing area as evident by the interaction between both main factors. / Agriculture / M.Sc (Agriculture)

The pomegranate fruit is one of the high valued crops, but there is insufficient information regarding the fruit properties in South Africa. The aim of the study was to evaluate the physico-chemical properties as well as total phenols, anthocyanin, antioxidant, organic sugars and acids of cultivar Wonderful on three locations of the Western Cape. This study was conducted on mature pomegranate fruits harvested in the 2012 and 2013 seasons. Fruit weight (g), length (mm), and width (mm), peel/aril colour and total arils weights (g) were measured. Fruits were also analysed for total soluble solids (TSS) or °Brix), titratable acidity (TA) and juice pH. Results of the study showed that there were significant differences in all measured factors with the exception of % aril yield between the three locations. Though varied per season, fruits produced at Bonnievalle had better physical and chemical properties than at the other localities. With the exception of Aril hue angle, all measured parameters had significant interaction effect regardless of locality (P<0.05). Total soluble solids content varied from 16.0–17.3 (°Brix), pH values from 2.7–3.0, titratable acid content varied from 1.3–1.7 and maturity index from 9.7–13.4. The anthocyanin, total phenols and antioxidant were in order of 772–1134; 1611–1834 and 12.57–14.84. Organic acids (Citric and Malic) showed differences while Acetic acid was not significant in all areas and organic sugar (fructose, Glucose and Sucrose) all had significant differences. It can also be concluded that changes in colour of peel and arils of pomegranate (cv. Wonderful) was mostly as a result of seasonal variation as well as growing area as evident by the interaction between both main factors. / Agriculture / M. Sc (Agriculture)

Ao ser excitado do estado fundamental para o estado singlete excitado, o Pka do equilíbrio ácido-base das antocianinas apresenta um deslocamento de ca. 4 para ca. -1. Esta característica de superfotoácido, aliado à técnica de fotólise por pulso de laser, permite a perturbação da posição do equilíbrio ácido-base no estado fundamental. O acompanhamento da cinética de reestabelecimento do equilíbrio inicial, existente antes do pulso do laser, permite a determinação das constantes de desprotonação kd e protonação kp no estado fundamental. Este método foi aplicado para a determinação das constantes de protonação e desprotonação das seguintes antocianinas sintéticas e naturais: 4-metil-7-hidroxiflavílio (HMF), 4\', 7-dihidroxiflavílio (DHF), malvidina-3-glucosídeo (Oenina), malvidina-3,5-diglucosídeo (Malvina), pelargonidina-3,5-diglucosídeo (Pelargonina) e cianidina-3 ,5-diglucosídeo (Cianina). Assim, as constantes de desprotonação do estado fundamental são: kd = 1,4 x 106 s-1 (HMF), 3,1 x 106 s-1 (DHF), 5, 1 x 106 s-1 (Oenina), 3,8 x 106 s-1 (Malvina), 1,3 x 106 s-1 (Pelargonina) e 1,8 x 106 s-1 (Cianina). As constantes de protonação do estado fundamental são:kp = 3,56 x 1010 L mol-1 s-1 (HMF), 3,06 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (DHF), 2,51 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (Oenina), 2,9 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (Malvina), 3,6 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (Pelargonina) e 2,2 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (Cianina). Nosso método é a única técnica que permite a determinação direta destas constantes. Este método também permite a determinação de kd e kp em meios micro-heterogêneos. Através de medidas de kd , foi possível provar que ocorre a estabilização do cátion flavílio de HMF em micelas aniônicas de SOS (dodecilsulfato de sódio). Em micelas não iônicas e catiônicas, por outro lado, ocorre a desestabilização do cátion flavílio, que se manifesta através do aparecimento de reatividade ausente em solução aquosa. Os resultados da aplicação deste método revelam ainda que o principal processo de dissipação da energia da luz, absorvida pelas antocianinas, é a transferência de próton no estado excitado e não a fluorescência. / Upon excitation from the ground state to the first excited singlet state, the pKa of the acid-base equilibrium of anthocyanins exhibits a large shift, from ca. 4 to ca. -1. This characteristic of super-photoacidity, coupled with the technique of laser flash photolysis, can be employed to perturb the position of the acid-base equilibrium in the ground state. Monitoring the kinetics of relaxation back to the initial equilibrium position that existed prior to the laser pulse permits determination of the rate constants for protonation (kp) and deprotonation (kd) in the ground state. This method was applied to the following natural and synthetic anthocyanins: 4-methyl-7-hydroxyflavylium (HMF); 4\', 7-dihydroxyflavylium (DHF); malvidine-3-glucoside (Oenin); malvidine-3,5-diglucoside (Malvin); Pelargonidine-3,5-diglucoside (Pelargonin); and. cyanidine-3,5-diglucoside (Cyanin). Thus, the ground state deprotonation rate constants (kd) for the acid form were found to be: 1.4 x 106 s-1 (HMF); 3.1 x 106 s-1 (DHF); 5.1 x 106 s-1 (Oenin); 3.8 x 106 s-1 (Malvin); 1.3 x 106 s-1 (Pelargonin); 1.8 x 106 s-1 (Cyanin). The corresponding rate constants for protonation of the ground state of the base (kp) were: 3.6 x 1010 M-1s-1 (HMF); 3.1 x 1010 M-1s-1 (DHF); 2.5 x 1010 M-1s-1 (Oenin); 2.9 x 1010M-1s-1 (Malvin); 3.6 x 1010 M-1s-1 (Pelargonin); 2.2 x 1010 s-1 (Cyanin). Our method is currently the only one that permits direct determination of these rate constants. This method also allows the determination of kpand kd in microheterogeneous media. Thus, employing measurements of kd, it was possible to demonstrate that anionic SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) micelles stabilize the flavylium cation form of HMF. In cationic and nonionic micelles, however, the flavylium cation is destabilized, which manifests itself via the appearance of reactivity that is absent in aqueous solution in the absence of these surfactants. Finally, the results of the application of this method show that the primary energy wasting process for radiant energy absorbed by anthocyanins is excited state proton transfer rather than fluorescence.

Ao ser excitado do estado fundamental para o estado singlete excitado, o Pka do equilíbrio ácido-base das antocianinas apresenta um deslocamento de ca. 4 para ca. -1. Esta característica de superfotoácido, aliado à técnica de fotólise por pulso de laser, permite a perturbação da posição do equilíbrio ácido-base no estado fundamental. O acompanhamento da cinética de reestabelecimento do equilíbrio inicial, existente antes do pulso do laser, permite a determinação das constantes de desprotonação kd e protonação kp no estado fundamental. Este método foi aplicado para a determinação das constantes de protonação e desprotonação das seguintes antocianinas sintéticas e naturais: 4-metil-7-hidroxiflavílio (HMF), 4\', 7-dihidroxiflavílio (DHF), malvidina-3-glucosídeo (Oenina), malvidina-3,5-diglucosídeo (Malvina), pelargonidina-3,5-diglucosídeo (Pelargonina) e cianidina-3 ,5-diglucosídeo (Cianina). Assim, as constantes de desprotonação do estado fundamental são: kd = 1,4 x 106 s-1 (HMF), 3,1 x 106 s-1 (DHF), 5, 1 x 106 s-1 (Oenina), 3,8 x 106 s-1 (Malvina), 1,3 x 106 s-1 (Pelargonina) e 1,8 x 106 s-1 (Cianina). As constantes de protonação do estado fundamental são:kp = 3,56 x 1010 L mol-1 s-1 (HMF), 3,06 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (DHF), 2,51 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (Oenina), 2,9 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (Malvina), 3,6 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (Pelargonina) e 2,2 x 1010 L mol-1s-1 (Cianina). Nosso método é a única técnica que permite a determinação direta destas constantes. Este método também permite a determinação de kd e kp em meios micro-heterogêneos. Através de medidas de kd , foi possível provar que ocorre a estabilização do cátion flavílio de HMF em micelas aniônicas de SOS (dodecilsulfato de sódio). Em micelas não iônicas e catiônicas, por outro lado, ocorre a desestabilização do cátion flavílio, que se manifesta através do aparecimento de reatividade ausente em solução aquosa. Os resultados da aplicação deste método revelam ainda que o principal processo de dissipação da energia da luz, absorvida pelas antocianinas, é a transferência de próton no estado excitado e não a fluorescência. / Upon excitation from the ground state to the first excited singlet state, the pKa of the acid-base equilibrium of anthocyanins exhibits a large shift, from ca. 4 to ca. -1. This characteristic of super-photoacidity, coupled with the technique of laser flash photolysis, can be employed to perturb the position of the acid-base equilibrium in the ground state. Monitoring the kinetics of relaxation back to the initial equilibrium position that existed prior to the laser pulse permits determination of the rate constants for protonation (kp) and deprotonation (kd) in the ground state. This method was applied to the following natural and synthetic anthocyanins: 4-methyl-7-hydroxyflavylium (HMF); 4\', 7-dihydroxyflavylium (DHF); malvidine-3-glucoside (Oenin); malvidine-3,5-diglucoside (Malvin); Pelargonidine-3,5-diglucoside (Pelargonin); and. cyanidine-3,5-diglucoside (Cyanin). Thus, the ground state deprotonation rate constants (kd) for the acid form were found to be: 1.4 x 106 s-1 (HMF); 3.1 x 106 s-1 (DHF); 5.1 x 106 s-1 (Oenin); 3.8 x 106 s-1 (Malvin); 1.3 x 106 s-1 (Pelargonin); 1.8 x 106 s-1 (Cyanin). The corresponding rate constants for protonation of the ground state of the base (kp) were: 3.6 x 1010 M-1s-1 (HMF); 3.1 x 1010 M-1s-1 (DHF); 2.5 x 1010 M-1s-1 (Oenin); 2.9 x 1010M-1s-1 (Malvin); 3.6 x 1010 M-1s-1 (Pelargonin); 2.2 x 1010 s-1 (Cyanin). Our method is currently the only one that permits direct determination of these rate constants. This method also allows the determination of kpand kd in microheterogeneous media. Thus, employing measurements of kd, it was possible to demonstrate that anionic SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) micelles stabilize the flavylium cation form of HMF. In cationic and nonionic micelles, however, the flavylium cation is destabilized, which manifests itself via the appearance of reactivity that is absent in aqueous solution in the absence of these surfactants. Finally, the results of the application of this method show that the primary energy wasting process for radiant energy absorbed by anthocyanins is excited state proton transfer rather than fluorescence.

Η διακυμαινόμενη ασυμμετρία των φύλλων, δηλαδή η τυχαία απόκλιση από τη συμμετρία, θεωρείται ένα μέτρο της καταπόνησης που υπέστησαν κατά την ανάπτυξή τους. Η ασυμμετρία υποδηλώνει αναπτυξιακή αστάθεια και έχει προταθεί ότι συσχετίζεται αρνητικά με την αρμοστικότητα (fitness). Εάν η φωτοσύνθεση αποτελεί έναν έμμεσο δείκτη της αρμοστικότητας, αναμένεται, ένα φύλλο με μειωμένη αρμοστικότητα να είναι και φωτοσυνθετικά υποδεέστερο. Προς επιβεβαίωση αυτού, στην παρούσα διατριβή εξετάστηκαν εκατοντάδες άθικτα φύλλα σε συνολικά 7 διαφορετικά είδη ως προς τη διακυμαινόμενη ασυμμετρία, καθώς και ως προς τη φωτοσυνθετική τους απόδοση (δείκτες PItotal & Fv/Fm). Ο δείκτης PItotal υπολογίζεται με βάση την κινητική ανάλυση των in vivo μεταβολών του φθορισμού της χλωροφύλλης και λαμβάνεται εύκολα και γρήγορα (εντός δευτερολέπτων). Ο δείκτης αυτός θεωρείται ανάλογος της φωτοσυνθετικής αφομοίωσης του CO2 και περιγράφει την απόδοση τόσο του φωτοσυστήματος Ι (PSI) όσο και του φωτοσυστήματος ΙΙ (PSII). Ο παραδοσιακός δείκτης Fv/Fm προκύπτει άμεσα από τις in vivo μετρήσεις φθορισμού της χλωροφύλλης και υποδεικνύει τη μέγιστη φωτοχημική ικανότητα του PSII. Δύο φυτικά είδη (Pistacia lentiscus, Olea europea) επέδειξαν θετική συσχέτιση μεταξύ διακυμαινόμενης ασυμμετρίας και φωτοσυνθετικής ικανότητας, αποτελέσμα αντίθετο από τις αρχικές προβλέψεις. Το μόνο φυτικό είδος που επιβεβαίωσε την αρχική υπόθεση ήταν το Ceratonia siliqua. Στα υπόλοιπα είδη (Arbutus unedo, Cercis siliquastrum, Platanus orientalis, Populus alba) δεν υπήρξε συσχέτιση μεταξύ των δύο παραμέτρων. Τα φυτικά είδη που εμφάνισαν μεγάλες τιμές διακυμαινόμενης ασυμμετρίας ήταν και αυτά στα οποία η ασυμμετρία συχετίστηκε θετικά με τη φωτοσύνθεση. Συμπεραίνεται, εμμέσως ότι η ισχυρή ένταση της καταπόνησης κατά τα πρώιμα στάδια της ανάπτυξης των φύλλων σε μερικά φυτά ενδεχομένως να οδηγεί σε πιο σφριγηλή φωτοσύνθεση κατά την ωριμότητά τους ή σε μεγαλύτερη ικανότητα αντοχής στην καταπόνηση. Αν το συμπέρασμα είναι αληθές, τότε μπορεί μεν η συμμετρία να είναι ομορφότερη, δεν είναι όμως και αποδοτικότερη. Σε γενικές γραμμές, και με βάση τη βιβλιογραφία, ο δείκτης διακυμαινόμενης ασυμμετρίας των φύλλων δεν φαίνεται από μόνος του να επιτυγχάνει αξιόπιστη εκτίμηση της αρμοστικότητας. Για αυτό τον λόγο η χρησιμοποίησή του πρέπει να γίνεται με ιδιαίτερη προσοχή και συνάμα θα πρέπει να συνδυάζεται με σειρά άλλων δεδομένων-δεικτών. Ένας ακόμη δείκτης περιβαλλοντικής καταπόνησης μπορεί να είναι η εποχική συσσώρευση ερυθρών χρωστικών (ανθοκυανινών) που παρατηρείται στα ώριμα φύλλα ορισμένων φυτικών ειδών. Έχει προταθεί ότι οι ανθοκυανίνες των φύλλων λειτουργούν ως «ομπρέλα» προστασίας για τη φωτοσυνθετική συσκευή ενάντια στη φωτοαναστολή. Ως προς την εξέταση αυτής της υπόθεσης, η παρούσα διατριβή χρησιμοποίησε δύο πειραματόφυτα που εμφανίζουν εποχική ερυθρότητα στα φύλλα ορισμένων ατόμων τους. Αυτά είναι το Pistacia lentiscus και το Cistus creticus. Αρχικά όσον αφορά το P. lentiscus, εξετάστηκε η συσχέτιση του βαθμού φωτοπροστασίας με τις πραγματικές συγκεντρώσεις ανθοκυανινών σε φύλλα ατόμων που φύονται σε συνθήκες πεδίου. Το συγκεκριμένο εγχείρημα αποτελεί καινοτομία, αφού μέχρι σήμερα δεν έχει μελετηθεί η φωτοπροστασία σε σχέση με τη διαβάθμιση της ερυθρότητας των φύλλων. Προς αυτή τη κατεύθυνση χρησιμοποιήθηκαν μη επεμβατικές οπτικές μέθοδοι (φάσματα ανακλαστικότητας και φθορισμός χλωροφύλλης) για να αποτιμήσουν τα επίπεδα ανθοκυανινών και χλωροφυλλών καθώς και τη φωτοχημική απόδοση του PS II, σε εκατοντάδες ώριμα φύλλα του φυτικού είδους P. lentiscus (σχίνος). Ο σχίνος κατά τη χειμερινή περίοδο εμφανίζει κόκκινους (όλων των διαβαθμίσεων ερυθρού χρώματος) και πράσινους φαινότυπους. Αντίθετα με την υπόθεση που υποστηρίζει το φωτοπροστατευτικό ρόλο των ανθοκυανινών, η ένταση της ερυθρότητας συσχετίστηκε θετικά με τη φωτοαναστολή και αρνητικά με τα επίπεδα των εμπεριεχόμενων χλωροφυλλών στα φύλλα. Έτσι, ο πιθανός φωτοπροστατευτικός ρόλος των ανθοκυανινών δεν επιβεβαιώθηκε. Ωστόσο, η χειμερινή ερυθρότητα των φύλλων στο σχίνο μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως ένας ρεαλιστικός, γρήγορος και μη επεμβατικός τρόπος εντοπισμού ατόμων «ευάλωτων» στη χειμερινή καταπόνηση. Σε μετέπειτα στάδιο στο ίδιο φυτικό είδος, εξετάστηκε in situ η σχέση της χειμερινής ερυθρότητας των φύλλων με σειρά άλλων φωτοσυνθετικών παραμέτρων. Συγκρινόμενοι με τους πράσινους φαινότυπους κατά τη διάρκεια του χειμώνα, οι ερυθροί (ανθοκυανικοί) φαινότυποι παρουσίασαν χαμηλότερες ταχύτητες αφομοίωσης CO2. Βρέθηκε ότι αυτό οφείλεται στη χαμηλή περιεκτικότητα ή/και ενεργότητα του ενζύμου καρβοξυλάση/οξυγονάση της διφωσφορικής ριβουλόζης (Rubisco) των ερυθρών φύλλων, ενώ ταυτόχρονα η στοματική αγωγιμότητα δεν φάνηκε να είναι περιοριστική για τη φωτοσύνθεση. Συγχρόνως, οι ερυθροί φαινότυποι βρέθηκε ότι περιέχουν λιγότερο άζωτο σε σχέση με τους πράσινους. Το εύρημα αυτό πιθανώς συνδέεται με την παρατηρούμενη χαμηλή περιεκτικότητα του ενζύμου Rubisco και τον μειωμένο φωτοσυνθετικό ρυθμό των ερυθρών φύλλων. Η περιορισμένη ικανότητα των αντιδράσεων καρβοξυλίωσης να χρησιμοποιήσουν αναγωγική δύναμη και ηλεκτρόνια, ενδεχομένως εξηγεί και τη μειωμένη απόδοση παγίδευσης φωτονίων του PSII που σημειώνεται στους ερυθρούς φαινοτύπους. Σε οποιαδήποτε περίπτωση, η ανάπτυξη της ανθοκυανικής «ομπρέλας» δεν φαίνεται να αποσοβεί το κίνδυνο φωτοαναστολής της φωτοσύνθεσης στον ερυθρό φαινότυπο του σχίνου. Ως παραπροϊόν της εργασίας με το P. lentiscus, εξετάστηκε η πιθανή επίδραση των φυσικών διακυμάνσεων του αζώτου των φύλλων του στις φωτεινές αντιδράσεις της φωτοσύνθεσης. Συγκεκριμένα, εξετάστηκαν οι φυσιολογικές διακυμάνσεις του αζώτου ώριμων φύλλων σε συνδυασμό με την ανάλυση των αντίστοιχων καμπυλών ταχείας ανόδου του φθορισμού της χλωροφύλλης. Η μαθηματική ανάλυση των καμπυλών έγινε σύμφωνα με το λεγόμενο «JIP-test», γεγονός που επέτρεψε την εκτίμηση της εν δυνάμει δραστηριότητας των δύο φωτοσυστημάτων. Τα αποτελέσματα υπέδειξαν εξάρτηση από την εποχή, επιτρέποντας την εξαγωγή του συμπεράσματος ότι η έλλειψη αζώτου επηρεάζει επιλεκτικά και αρνητικά το PSI, ενώ η αρνητική επίδραση στο PSII περιορίζεται μόνο κατά τη δυσμενή-χειμερινή περίοδο του έτους. Ένας δεύτερος Μεσογειακός θάμνος που εξετάστηκε ήταν το είδος Cistus creticus. Όπως και ο σχίνος, το είδος αυτό επιδεικνύει χαρακτηριστική ενδοειδική ποικιλομορφία στην έκφραση του ανθοκυανικού χαρακτήρα στα φύλλα του. Συγκεκριμένα, μερικά άτομα κοκκινίζουν το χειμώνα, ενώ γειτονικά τους κάτω από τις ίδιες περιβαλλοντικές συνθήκες παραμένουν πράσινα. Η ερυθρότητα των φύλλων διατηρείται μέχρι τα μέσα της άνοιξης. Αυτό το σύστημα απεδείχθη κατάλληλο, όχι μόνο για τη μελέτη του φυσιολογικού ρόλου των ανθοκυανινών αλλά και για τη προσέγγιση οικολογικών ερωτημάτων που σχετίζονται με την αρμοστικότητα (fitness) των δύο φαινότυπων. Επίσης, απεδείχθη πως η φυλλική ερυθρότητα μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως ένας οπτικός δείκτης καταπόνησης. Ως τελικές παράμετροι αρμοστικότητας χρησιμοποιήθηκαν, η αναπαραγωγική προσπάθεια ως ο αριθμός ανθέων ανά άτομο, η αναπαραγωγική επιτυχία ως ο αριθμός σπερμάτων ανά άτομο καθώς και η επικονιστική επιτυχία ως ο αριθμός καρπών ανά αριθμό ανθέων και ως ο αριθμός σπερμάτων ανά καρπό. Η μελέτη αυτή, συνδιαζόμενη με σειρά φυσιολογικών δεικτών που εξέτασαν άλλα μέλη της ερευνητικής ομάδας του εργαστηρίου μας έδειξαν ότι, παρόλο που οι φυσιολογικοί δείκτες εμφανίζουν τον ερυθρό φαινότυπο υποδεέστερο, αντίθετα οι αναπαραγωγικοί δείκτες (αποτελέσματα παρούσας διατριβής) δεν παρουσίασαν διαφορές. Εν τέλει, μπορεί ίσως να λεχθεί πως η παρουσία της ερυθρότητας υποδεικνύει μεν «ασθενέστερα» άτομα (που με τη βοήθεια των ανθοκυανινών ίσως επιτυγχάνουν κάποια αντιστάθμιση αυτών των ενδογενών φυσιολογικών και γενετικών αδυναμιών τους), όχι όμως τόσο ασθενικά ώστε να επηρεάζεται αρνητικά η αναπαραγωγική τους επιτυχία και αρμοστικότητα. / Fluctuating asymmetry, small nondirectional deviations from perfect symmetry, has been proposed as a useful indicator of environmental stress. The developmental instability of an organism may induce asymmetric characters. Hence, a high degree of developmental instability, morphologically manifested as fluctuating asymmetry, may indicate less fitness. According to that, less fit individuals are expected to have asymmetric leaves and this may have a negative impact in their photosynthetic yield. In this investigation, fluctuating asymmetry and two photosynthetic indices (PItotal, Fv/Fm) has been measured in a great number of leaves in 7 plant species. PItotal, is an index which expresses the relative photosynthetic performance. It is calculated from the kinetics of fast chlorophyll a fluorescence rise curves according to the so-called «JIP-test». It is considered to be positively correlated to CO2 assimilation rates, hence to productivity based on photosynthesis. Fv/Fm, is a second photosynthetic index which indicates the maximum photosystem II (PSII) photochemical efficiency. Fluctuating asymmetry was positively correlated to both photosynthetic indices in two plant species (Pistacia lentiscus, Olea europea). These results do not support the initial hypothesis of this investigation. Contrary, the species Ceratonia siliqua shows a negative correlation between fluctuating asymmetry and the two photosynthetic indices. Furthermore, in four plant species (Arbutus unedo, Cercis siliquastrum, Platanus orientalis, Populus alba), fluctuating asymmetry and photosynthetic performance were not correlated. It happened that the two species deviating from the initial hypothesis (P. lentiscus and O. europea) display the maximum mean fluctuating asymmetry values among all species included in this investigation. In conclusion, it seems that in some plants whose leaves have experienced high stress as young are more photosynthetically potent as mature. Moreover, these results suggest that the relation between fluctuating asymmetry and photosynthesis is species-specific. Finally, the results show that fluctuating asymmetry may not be a reliable index of developmental instability and stress exposure in plants. Leaf anthocyanins are believed to afford protection against photoinhibition, yet the dependence of protection on actual anthocyanin concentrations has not been investigated. To that aim, non-invasive optical methods (spectral reflectance and chlorophyll fluorescence) were used to assess levels of anthocyanins and chlorophylls as well as photosystem II (PSII) photochemical efficiency in hundreds of leaves from the mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus). This species displays a continuum of leaf tints during winter from fully green to fully red under field conditions. Contrary to expectations based on the photoprotective hypothesis, the strength of leaf redness was positively correlated to the extent of mid-winter chronic photoinhibition and negatively correlated to leaf chlorophyll contents. Hence, a photoprotective role for anthocyanins is not substantiated. Instead, we argue that winter leaf redness may be used reliably, quickly and non-invasively to locate vulnerable individuals in the field. Given that winter-red leaf phenotypes in the mastic tree are more vulnerable to chronic photoinhibition during the cold season, we asked whether corresponding limitations in leaf gas exchange and carboxylation reactions could also be manifested. During the cold («red») season, net CO2 assimilation rates (A) and stomatal conductances (gs) in the red phenotype were considerably lower than the green phenotype, while leaf internal CO2 concentration (Ci) was higher. The differences were abolished in the «green» period of the year, the dry summer included. Analysis of A versus Ci curves indicated that CO2 assimilation during winter in the red phenotype was limited by Rubisco content and/or activity rather than stomatal conductance. Concomitant to that, leaf nitrogen levels in the red phenotype were considerably lower during the red-leaf period. Hence, we suggest that the inherently low leaf nitrogen levels are linked to the low net photosynthetic rates of the red plants through a decrease in Rubisco content. Accordingly, the reduced capacity of the carboxylation reactions to act as photosynthetic electron sinks may explain the corresponding loss of PSII photon trapping efficiency, which cannot be fully alleviated by the screening effect of the accumulated anthocyanins. In a next step we examined whether leaf nitrogen level affects photosynthetic light reactions. Although it is amply documented that CO2 assimilation rates are positively correlated to leaf nitrogen, corresponding studies on a link between this nutrient and photosynthetic light reactions are scarce, especially under natural field conditions. In this final investigation with mastic tree, we exploited natural variation in nitrogen content of mature leaves of P. lentiscus in conjunction with fast chlorophyll a fluorescence rise (the OJIP curves) analysed according to the so-called «JIP-test», as this was recently modified to allow also for the assessment of events in or around photosystem I (PSI). The results depended on the sampling season, with low nitrogen leaves displaying lower efficiencies for electron flow from intermediate carriers to final PSI acceptors and lower relative pool sizes of these acceptors, both during the autumn and winter. However, parameters related to the PSII activity (i.e. quantum yields for photon trapping and electron flow along PSII, efficiency of a trapped exciton to move an electron from QA- to intermediate carriers) were limited by low nitrogen only during the winter period. As a result, parameters like the quantum yield of total electron flow along both photosystems as well as the total photosynthetic performance index (PItotal) were positively correlated to leaf nitrogen independently of season. We conclude that nitrogen deficiency under field conditions preferentially affects PSI activity while the effects on PSII are evident only during the stressful period of the year. In the last part of this dissertation we asked whether the leaf anthocyanic trait confers long term benefits to the plant and to that aim parameters directly related to fitness, i.e. reproductive effort and success as well as seed germinability were registered in winter-red and green phenotypes of Cistus creticus growing in the field under apparently similar conditions. The results indicated that both phenotypes displayed similar flower numbers, pollination success and seed yield, mass and germinability. As judged by the similar final reproductive output, vulnerability to the winter stress does not render the red phenotype less fit, nor anthocyanin accumulation render it more fit. Although an apparent compensating function for anthocyanins may be inferred, it can not be linked to a protection against photoinhibition of photosynthesis. Moreover, the photosynthetic inferiority of the red phenotype although linked to slightly reduced leaf number, (results from other members of our laboratory) it was not limiting for reproductive effort and success. Regardless of function, winter leaf redness may indicate photosynthetically weak, yet not necessarily less fit individuals in C. creticus.

No description available.

Los objetivos de la presente tesis fueron comparar el efecto de tres técnicas de cocción en varios vegetales y su selección para cada producto estudiado. Para ello, los trabajos realizados han considerado los cambios en las propiedades físico-químicas, nutricionales, sensoriales y la microestructura. Asimismo, como respuesta al reto de aplicar tratamientos equivalentes en firmeza con diferentes técnicas de cocción se ha propuesto una metodología que combina los diseños experimentales de superficie respuesta (RSM) con análisis instrumentales y sensoriales. Los tratamientos térmicos estudiados fueron la cocción tradicional (TC¿ agua hirviendo a 100 °C) junto con dos tratamientos que utilizan el vacío en el procesado: el cook-vide (CV¿ cocción a vacío continuo donde los alimentos están en contacto con agua hirviendo a baja presión) y el sous-vide (SV¿ cocción de alimentos previamente embolsados a vacío donde el alimento está separado del agua de cocción). Los vegetales objeto de estudio fueron la patata morada (Solanum tuberosum L. var. Vitelotte), la judía verde (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Estefania), la zanahoria (Daucus carota L. cv. Nantesa) y la col lombarda (o repollo colorado) (Brassica oleracea convar. capitata var. capitata f. rubra). Considerando muestras con firmeza instrumental similar y las propiedades nutricionales y sensoriales (especialmente aroma y sabor), incluyendo la aceptación del consumidor, se recomienda la cocción SV para los vegetales estudiados, excepto para la zanahoria. En el caso de este vegetal el cocinado tradicional (100 °C) mantiene la aceptabilidad del consumidor y aumenta la extracción de los ß-carotenos por lo que se considera más recomendable que el SV. / Iborra Bernad, MDC. (2013). Comparison of vacuum treatments and traditional cooking in vegetables using instrumental and sensory analysis [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/32953

Tesis por compendio / [EN] Until recently, the genetic improvement of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) was focused in agronomic traits, such as yield and biotic or abiotic stresses; therefore the interest in tomato fruit quality is relatively new. The tomato fruit surface can be considered both an agronomic trait as well as a quality trait, because it has an effect on consumer impression in terms of color and glossiness but also it underlies the resistance/sensitivity to cracking or water loss with consequences on fruit manipulation (e.g. transport and processing). The cuticle is deposited over the cell wall surrounding the epidermal cells and it is the first barrier in the plant-environment interface. The cuticle composition includes two main groups of metabolites: cuticular waxes and cutin. Other metabolites can be founded into the cuticle matrix, as triterpenoids and flavonoids. Those minor cuticular components are involved in the correct functionality of the cuticle. Understanding cuticle biosynthesis and genetic regulation requires the development of fast and simple analytical methodologies to study those specialized metabolites using large populations (e.g. mutant collections or introgression lines), together with the identification of genes and genomic regions responsible of their production. This thesis aims to contribute to our understanding of the molecular programs underlying tomato fruit quality by providing: i) a general protocol to profile cuticular waxes in different species, including tomato; ii) a QTL map for cuticular composition (i.e. cuticular waxes and cutin monomers) using the Solanum pennellii introgression line population; iii) a detailed protocol of the reverse genetic tool so-called Fruit-VIGS to assist in the study of gene function in tomato fruit; and iv) a thorough characterization of the first null allele for the transcription factor SlMYB12 (i.e. Slmyb12-pf) in tomato fruit which provides new insights into the regulation of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway in the fruit peel by high resolution mass spectrometry and RNA-Seq approaches. / [ES] Hasta hace poco, la mejora genética del cultivo del tomate (Solanum lycopersicum) había estado centrada principalmente en caracteres agronómicos, como la productividad y la resistencia a estreses, tanto bióticos como abióticos. Así, el interés en la calidad del fruto de tomate es relativamente reciente. La superficie del fruto del tomate puede considerarse tanto un carácter agronómico como de calidad, pues influye en la primera impresión de los consumidores en términos de color y brillo, así como también en los procesos de resistencia o sensibilidad a la rotura ('cracking') o a la pérdida de agua. Estos factores determinan el aspecto del fruto y condicionan atributos relacionados con su manipulación (transporte y procesado). La cutícula se deposita sobre la pared celular de las células epidérmicas y es la primera barrera que interacciona con el ambiente. Está constituida por dos grandes tipos de metabolitos: las ceras cuticulares y la cutina. Otros metabolitos pueden aparecer embebidos en la matriz cuticular, como es el caso de los triterpenoides y los flavonoides. Estos metabolitos contribuyen a la correcta funcionalidad de la cutícula. La compresión de la biosíntesis y regulación génica de la cutícula requiere del desarrollo de metodologías de análisis sencillas y rápidas para el estudio de estos metabolitos especializados en grandes poblaciones (colecciones de mutantes o líneas de introgresión), así como para la identificación de genes y regiones génicas responsables de la producción y acumulación de dichos compuestos, pudiendo ser muy útiles para implementar programas de mejora de la calidad del tomate. El objetivo de esta tesis es contribuir a la comprensión sobre los programas moleculares subyacentes a la calidad del fruto de tomate, proporcionando: i) un protocolo general de análisis del contenido de ceras cuticulares en diferentes especies, incluyendo el tomate; ii) un mapa de QTL de la composición cuticular (incluyendo ceras y monómeros de cutina) obtenido con la población de líneas de introgresión de Solanum pennellii; iii) un protocolo detallado de uso de la herramienta de genética reversa Fruit-VIGS con el que realizar estudios de funciones génicas en fruto de tomate; y iv) una minuciosa caracterización de un nuevo alelo nulo del factor de transcripción SlMYB12 (Slmyb12-pf) en fruto de tomate, proporcionando nueva información sobre la regulación de la ruta biosintética de los flavonoides en la piel del fruto, utilizando espectrometría de masas de alta resolución y de nuevas tecnologías de secuenciación. / [CA] Fins fa poc de temps, la millora genètica de la tomata (Solanum lycopersicum) anava dirigida fonamentalment als caràcters de tipus agronòmic, com la productivitat i la tolerància a estressos biòtics o abiòtics, resultant que l'interés per la qualitat dels fruits és relativament nou. La superfície de la tomata pot ser considerada tant com un caràcter agronòmic com un de qualitat, ja que és l'aspecte de la superfície del fruit el que confereix al consumidor la primera impressió de color, brillantor, però és també la pell del fruit la responsable de la diferent susceptibilitat del fruit a desenvolupar clevills o que el fruit sofrisca més o menys pèrdues d'aigua, tot tenint importants conseqüències en la manipulació (i.e. transport i processament del fruit). La cutícula és dipositada per sobre de la paret cel·lular que envolta la capa de cèl·lules epidèrmiques i constitueix la primera barrera en la interfase planta-medi ambient. La composició de la cutícula presenta dos grups principals de metabòlits: les ceres i la cutina. També es poden trobar altres metabòlits els triterpenoids i el flavonoids. Aquests darrers components cuticulars menors són implicats en el correcte funcionament de la cutícula. Per tal de comprendre la biosíntesi i la regulació genètica de la cutícula cal desenvolupar tecnologies analítiques senzilles i rapides que permeten estudiar aquests metabòlits especialitzats en poblacions grans de plantes (i.e. Col·leccions de mutants o de línies d'introgressió), a més de la identificació de gens i regions genòmiques que són responsables de la seua producció. Aquesta tesi té com a objectiu contribuir a millorar la nostra comprensió dels programes moleculars que afecten determinats aspectes de la qualitat de la tomata mitjançant els següents objectius: i) proporcionar un protocol general per obtenir perfils de ceres cuticulars en diferents espècies, inclosa la tomata; ii) obtenir un mapa de QTL per a la composició cuticular (i.e. ceres cuticulars i monòmers de cutina) mitjançant la utilització de la població de línies d'introgressió de Solanum pennelli; iii) descriure amb detall el protocol d'una eina de revers genètica denominada Fruit-VIGS que resulta molt adequada per estudiar funció gènica a la tomata; y iv) fer una caracterització exhaustiva del primer al·lel nul del factor de transcripció SlMYB12 (ie. Slmyb12-pf) en tomata la qual proporciona informació nova sobre la regulació de la ruta de biosíntesi de flavonoides en la pell de la tomata mitjançant espectrometria de masses d'alta resolució i RNAseq. / Fernández Moreno, JP. (2015). TOMATO FLESHY FRUIT QUALITY IMPROVEMENT: CHARACTERIZATION OF GENES AND GENOMIC REGIONS ASSOCIATED TO SPECIALIZED METABOLISM IN TOMATO FLESHY FRUIT [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/55505 / Premios Extraordinarios de tesis doctorales / Compendio