The end of the Pleistocene and subsequent transition into the early Holocene marked a time of great environmental, climatic, and geological flux in Florida. Furthermore, these changes influenced a shift in the technologies of people inhabiting the Southeast at this time. Late Paleoindian groups at the end of the Pleistocene utilized lanceolate-shaped projectile points, whereas the Early Archaic groups of the transitional Holocene utilized side- and corner-notched points. Past research on these Early Archaic groups has shown that the shift in technology may have been influenced by the Dalton culture entering the region from the greater Southeast, sharing their ideas and technologies and spreading the notched point type around the region. Furthermore, the earliest notched points in the Florida record are extremely varied in terms of size and overall shape. Because of this, it has been believed that Early Archaic points in Florida, Bolen points specifically, had many subtypes, sometimes up to six or seven depending on the source. However, due to the success of curation studies being applied to Dalton points of the Paleoindian/Archaic transition, it is possible that the large variation in Bolen point styles is not reflective of varying subtypes of Bolen points, but instead the variation is representative of successive stages of resharpening a projectile point throughout its use-life. The research in this thesis focuses on applying methods of studying tool curation over time to a set of Bolen points from the archaeological record in Florida. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / 2019 / November 4, 2019. / archaeology, Bolen, early archaic, Expended Utility, geometric morphometrics, pythagorean / Includes bibliographical references. / Jessi J. Halligan, Professor Directing Thesis; Thomas P. Leppard, Committee Member; Tanya M. Peres, Committee Member.

Bibliography: pages 128-143. / In the 1980s Tony Humphreys suggested the archaeology of the Moravian Mission at Genadendal as a possible avenue through which the archaeological 'void' regarding the Khoekhoen, post 1652, could be addressed. Building on this suggestion, the primary aim of this research was to find evidence of the Khoekhoen who lived at the mission during the 18th and early 19th century and to explore the ways in which Khoekhoe communities interacted with mission establishments as a means of reinventing themselves in a changing world. Material evidence of both the Khoekhoen and the mission itself (excluding the architecture) during this period proved to be elusive, in contrast to the wealth of documentary records. The reasons for this elusive material expression of the 18th and early 19th century mission, missionaries and Khoekhoe converts at Genadendal has been sought in the archaeological elusiveness of the Khoekhoen themselves and the nature of their material cultural base, as well as in the nature of the exchange and supply of European manufactured commodities in the Overberg.

Expanding on existing data, this thesis presents the largest (N=51) isotopic dataset for Iron Age (2000-100 years BP) agriculturalists in southern Africa. Four isotopic values are presented for each individual (δ¹³Cbone apatite, δ¹³Ctooth enamel, δ¹³Ccollagen, δ¹⁵Ncollagen). Dietary reconstructions using both typical 'fractionation factor' methods and recent bi- and multi-variate models are presented and compared. For this population, which consumed primarily C4 protein and energy sources (including protein-rich crops such as sorghum and millet), multiple tissue isotopes provide valuable insight into diet that cannot be achieved with single tissues, but current models are limited by the lack of isotopic diversity in the data on which they are based. Multi- and bi-variate models are unable to distinguish between C4 plants and animals in some cases, and recreation of cluster analysis including the Iron Age data results in a reduction in the parsimony of the dietary clusters derived in Froehle et al. 2012. Isotopic reconstructions suggest that C3 dietary components contributed limited protein or energy to Iron Age farmers, elaborating on archaeological evidence for their use. Iron Age agriculturalists are found to have consumed highly variable and heterogeneous diets, especially after the 18th century (for all agriculturalists: δ¹³Cbone apatite =-6.25±2.49‰, δ¹³Ctooth enamel =-2.88±2.48‰, δ¹³Ccollagen = -8.65±2.16‰, δ¹⁵Ncollagen=10.05±1.9‰). The expansion of settlement into higher-altitude grassland areas obscures the introduction of maize in the region in the 15th and 16th centuries, and there is no significant difference between the Early and Late Iron Age, with more diversity than expected overall. Environmental effects impact δ¹⁵Ncollagen significantly, but there is no distinct geographical patterning in ¹³C between grassland and savanna biomes. Evidence of regional variation including along rivers and coastal regions is apparent in both the Early and Late Iron Age. The pre-treatment of bone apatite for isotopic use was explored through a series of experiments that compared reaction time in acetic acid, sodium hypochlorite, and particle size of the bone powder to δ¹³Cbone apatite. Extremely small (<25 μm) particles were very sensitive to pre-treatment and significantly altered δ¹³Cbone apatite. Time in sodium hypochlorite was more impactful on the isotopic value of the sample than time in acid, but for short exposure times (<3.5 hours) even poorly preserved bone showed robust isotopic values. δ¹³Cbone apatite and δ¹³Ctooth enamel were uncorrelated (R²=0.24) and Δ¹³Ccollagen-bone apatite (4.77±1.42‰) and Δ¹³Ccollagen-enamel (5.67±1.66‰) are comparable to other published values indicating that tooth enamel and bone apatite are mineralogically and isotopically distinct. The effects of pre-treatment on isotope values in previous studies is examined and possible sources of difference in metabolic processes or fractionation for bone apatite and tooth enamel are explored.

Bibliography: leaves 281-289.

This dissertation presents the results of a study done on the area situated outside of the Outer Perimeter Wall, believed to be the commoner area at Great Zimbabwe. The methodology used in this study combined archival with artefact studies and archaeological field work. The study aimed to acquire an understanding of the uses at the commoner area at Great Zimbabwe. Focus was aimed at material culture used by the underclass to understand how it compares with that of the upper class. The comparison between the elite and non-elite areas showed that there was not a large difference between the material cultures. The ceramic analysis showed an expansion of Great Zimbabwe over time. These results are important and offer a new perspective on the social stratigraphy of the Great Zimbabwe civilization. The differences found related to objects of power, such as stone walling and soapstone artefacts; these objects only being seen in the elite areas. This study offers a new perspective in the analysis of Great Zimbabwe, and the methodology could be used as a foundation for future studies of ancient civilizations world-wide.

Bibliography: pages 76-80. / Excavations at the Late Stone Age site of Tortoise Cave, a shell midden accumulation in the Western Cape, South Africa, were carried out from 1978 to 1983. The author supervised this project from 1981 onwards with the aim of expanding the cultural sample and defining more clearly the stratigraphic sequence, at the same time, to increase the objectivity of the written record, some improvements to the normal recording techniques were tested. These included the use of context sheets and a stratigraphic matrix. Methods often used elsewhere but very common in South Africa, It was felt that archaeologists had been ignoring the vital difference between stratigraphy that is observed and excavated and the actual sequence and circumstances of deposition. For this latter, the term 'Site Taphonomy' has been coined, to end the confusion that has existed concerning the meaning and correct application of the words 'Stratigraphy' and 'Stratification'. These terms should now be restricted to refer to the archaeological constructs alone, The amount of disturbance at the site led to an investigation of the processes and effects of disturbance, the implications of which are outlined here, It is thought that Tortoise Cave is not an isolated case and that considerable artefact displacement may be a common feature of local sites. Despite this, an attempt was made to find and use appropriate statistical methods of spatial analysis, It was found that some positive results, if somewhat generalised, could be obtained. The major theme of the thesis is, however, neither a description of the finds and findings from the site not simply a spatial analysis of the deposits and their contents. It attempts instead to illustrate how the understanding of the central concept of site taphonomy is essential to every aspect of the interpretation of a site and the assessment of the results.

Includes bibliographical references. / Zooarchaeology - the study of faunal remains - is not limited to prehistoric sites, but extends also into the realm of historical archaeology. Over the last two decades the number of papers and publications on a variety of aspects pertaining to zooarchaeology have grown. Although faunal research extends back into the mid-19 century, historical zooarchaeology has only increased over the last decade or so. This is equally the case in South Africa with historical zooarchaeology a growing avenue of research. This thesis provides a methodology through which fauna! material can be analyzed in-depth, beyond the mere appendices to site reports. Microscopic analysis of more than 2000 faunal specimens from a historical site within Cape Town (South Africa), Sea Street, was undertaken. The majority of the cultural material from this dump site dates to between c.1780 and c.1830. This time period covers the ending of the Verenigde Oostindische Companjie's (VOC) occupation of the Cape and its final succession to British rule in 1806. The explicit aim of this study was to go beyond minimum nwnbers (MNl) and number of identified specimens (NISP) to look at food-use patterns. A data sheet has been specifically constructed for this purpose. Other than looking at butchery style, the emphasis was to establish a ''general butchery pattern'', which explains how carcasses were utilized. This thesis only looks at domestic sheep, although the utilization of other domestic bvestock is also discussed. All faunal patterns are blurred by the possible inclusion of primary, secondary and tertiary butchery on one fauna! specimen. This does not include other cultural and natural formation processes which impact on the archaeological record. An attempt is made to distinguish between butchery done at the central locus and that away from it. Furthermore, an attempt is made to get at the cuts of meat that were actually acquired, not the erroneous results provided by lIINI totals. Statistical analyses, especially the Speannan rho rank order correlation coefficient, are used to evaluate discernible patterns, and establish the strengths or correlations of these patterns. As the recoverable faunal record does not include the unpreserved aspects of the original items that were consumed, an attempt is made to fill this gap left in the archaeological record through an analysis of available primary literature, especially diaries and newspapers. Complementary sets of information are also consulted so as to tie in with various aspects of the archaeological record.

Bibliography: pages 107-116. / The 1986-1988 archaeological investigations of the previously largely unresearched Koichab River region the south-western Namib Desert are described. The sites studied are those of Holocene hunter-gatherers. Included are the analyses of archaeological remains from two excavations and three surface collections. The investigations resulted in the recovery of the oldest dated archaeological material from the entire Namib coast, and the halving of the duration of the previously established Holocene hiatus for the southern Namib. It is suggested that the resources of the Koichab River reion were subjected to opportunistic utilization, a subsistence strategy which may have been more extensively resorted to in all of southern Africa than has so far suspected.

Craniodental robusticity in Paranthropus has led many researchers to posit that all the species in this genus share a common adaptation to a diet of hard foods. Recent research on craniodental morphology, microwear, biomechanics, and isotopes, by contrast, has suggested that substantial variation exists within the genus Paranthropus, both in terms of ecological niches occupied by the three recognized species within the genus and the amount of consumed hard and compliant foods. Rather than pointing to a common adaptive suite, these studies suggest that the species were adaptively distinct from each other. However, current approaches to understanding craniodental morphology do not present a clear picture of how these speciesspecific adaptations differ. It is also not clear whether all aspects of morphology that have been attributed to adaptation are indeed adaptive, rather than the products of non-adaptive processes. This study examines variation across the three known Paranthropus taxa (P. aethiopicus, P. boisei and P. robustus; N=39) using an approach that tests for adaptive morphology against a null hypothesis of random change (i.e. drift). Extant species (Homo sapiens (N=150), Gorilla gorilla (N=150), Pan troglodytes (N=143) act as analogues for Paranthropus variance/covariance (V/CV). Results reveal a high magnitude of variation within and between species across mandibular and cranial regions, especially when including the P. robustus individuals DNH 7 &amp; 8 from Drimolen. Drift cannot be rejected for the bulk of comparisons. Neutrality tests detect adaptive divergence between P. robustus and the other two species, but not between P. aethiopicus and P. boisei. Reconstructed selection vectors indicate that both positive and negative directional selection have driven diversification in mandibular and tooth dimensions and in the cranium, resulting in variable morphological responses including considerable evidence for correlated selection.

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