The structure of a material, whether at the atomic scale or patterned at the nanoscale, is the basis of many of its physical properties—color, emission wavelength, optical nonlinearity, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, brittleness, and more. Therefore, one of the most important developments in photonics, electronics, and magnetics is the ability to manipulate the nanostructure of materials as a way to augment their natural qualities and adapt them to greater applications. The cleanroom debuted in the mid-20th century, alongside and followed by an assortment of precision nanofabrication instruments performing photolithography, electron-beam lithography, ion implantation, femtosecond laser machining, etc. While these techniques have demonstrated breakthroughs such as fabricating ever-smaller transistors keeping pace with the famous Moore’s Law, they require cleanroom facilities, multi-step processing, or leave behind debris or residue. Such impurities have an outsize effect on a burgeoning class of materials with desirable optical and electronic properties—two-dimensional (2D) layered van der Waals materials—as their dimensions approach the single-atom limit, leading a desire for additional approaches to material nanostructuring. In this thesis, we describe a novel approach to generating atomically sharp linear nanostructures in hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) via resonant optical phonon pumping with a pulsed mid-infrared laser and detail its development from discovery to a useful technique that complements established approaches to nanopatterning. The femtosecond laser is tuned to the material’s infrared-active transverse optical TO (E1u) phonon, located at ? = 7.3 ?? or 1367 cm-1, and its polarization aligned parallel to the crystal zigzag axis, in the direction of the phonon’s characteristic atomic motion. The optical field coherently drives and amplifies the intrinsic ionic motion toward bond breakage, resulting in a gentle tearing of the hBN flake along the crystal axis at the material damage threshold. All processing is performed in situ at room temperature under ambient conditions, free from cryogenics and vacuum setups, unlike in the conventional nanofabrication methods confined to the cleanroom. This phenomenon is termed “unzipping” to depict the rapid formation and emanation of a crack tens of nanometers wide from a point within the laser-excited area. The generation of these fea- tures is ascribed to the large atomic displacements and localized bond strain produced by strongly driving the crystal at an intrinsic resonance, which is absent under non-resonant irradiation and is greatly sensitive to the relative angle between the crystal orientation and the linear laser polarization. We perform detailed characterization of the unzipped features and their host hBN flakes us- ing atomic force microscopy (AFM) topographic imaging, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic-scale lateral force microscopy (LFM), nanoindentation in the plastic deformation regime, and near-field optical probing (scattering-type scanning near-field optical microscopy, s-SNOM) to reveal their atomically sharp, six-fold symmetric, orientation-selective, defect-seeded nature. Then, we fabricated several nanostructures—gratings, Fabry-Perot resonators, and cleaved and shaped flakes—to demonstrate the technique in useful nanophotonics applications. The preliminary Fabry-Perot resonator, examined in the near-field with nanoscale Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (nano-FTIR), exhibited performance that is competitive with similar structures fabricated by cleanroom etching. Our initial approach achieved a quality factor of ? ≈ 70, already on par with ? = 50 to 100 achieved by conventional nanofabrication methods. The cleanliness, sharpness, and directionality of nanostructures fabricated in situ via unzipping, along with the ability to deterministically seed the location of its constituent line defects using nanoindentation, enable vast future applications in patterning hBN and other polar crystals that possess optically-addressable, high-energy optical phonon modes in the mid-infrared.

Ionic liquids (ILs) present new approaches for controlling interactions at the solid-liquid interface. ILs are defined as liquids consisting of bulky and asymmetric ions, with a melting point below 373 K. Owing to their amphiphilic character they are powerful solvents but also possess other interesting properties. For example, ILs can self-assemble and are attracted to surfaces due to their charged nature. As a result, they are capable of forming nanostructures both in bulk and at interfaces. This thesis describes how the solid-IL interface responds to external influences such as elevated temperatures, the addition of salt and polarisation. An improved understanding of how these factors govern the surface composition can provide tools for tuning systems to specific applications such as friction. Normal and friction forces are measured for ethylammonium nitrate (EAN) immersed between a mica surface and a silica probe, at different temperatures or salt concentrations. The results demonstrate that an increase in temperature or low concentrations of added salt only induce small changes in the interfacial structure and that the boundary layer properties remain intact. In contrast, at sufficiently large salt concentrations the smaller lithium ion prevails and the surface composition changes. The interfacial layer of a similar IL is also investigated upon the addition of salt and the results reveal that lithium ions affect the surface composition differently depending on the ion structure of the IL. This demonstrates that the surface selectivity strongly depends on the ion chemistry. Remarkably, a repulsive double layer force manifests itself for EAN at 393 K, which is not observed for lower temperatures. This indicates a temperature dependent change in EAN’s microscopic association behaviour and has general implications for how ILs are perceived. A new method is developed based on a quartz crystal microbalance to investigate how the surface compositions of ILs respond to polarisation. The approach demonstrates that interfacial layers of both a neat IL and an IL dissolved in oil can be controlled using potentials of different magnitudes and signs. Furthermore, the method enables two independent approaches for monitoring the charges during polarisation which can be used to quantify the surface composition. The technique also provides information on ion kinetics and surface selectivity. This work contributes to the fundamental understanding of the solid-IL interface and demonstrates that the surface composition of ILs can be controlled and monitored using different approaches. / Jonvätskor möjliggör nya tillvägagångssätt för att kontrollera interaktioner vid gränsskiktet mellan fasta ytor och vätskor. Jonvätskor definieras som vätskor som består av stora och asymmetriska joner med en smältpunkt under 373 K. På grund av sin amfifila karaktär är de starka lösningsmedel men har också andra intressanta egenskaper. Jonvätskor kan till exempel självorganisera sig och attraheras till ytor på grund av sin laddning. En följd av detta är att de bildar nanostrukturer både i bulk och på ytor. Denna avhandling beskriver hur gränsskiktet mellan fasta ytor och jonvätskor svarar på yttre påverkan såsom en ökning i temperatur, tillsättning av ett salt samt polarisering. En ökad förståelse för hur dessa faktorer styr ytkompositionen av jonvätskor kan bidra med verktyg för att kontrollera system till specifika applikationer såsom friktion. Normala- och friktionskrafter mäts för etylammonium nitrat (EAN) mellan en glimmeryta och en kolloidprob vid olika temperaturer eller saltkoncentrationer. Resultaten visar att en ökning av temperatur eller låga koncentrationer av tillsatt salt bara marginellt framkallar ändringar i strukturen på gränsytan och att det adsorberade lagret förblir intakt. När saltkoncentrationen emellertid var tillräckligt hög får den mindre litiumjonen överhanden och ytsammansättningen ändras. Ytlagret av en liknande jonvätska undersöks också vid tillsättning av salt och resultaten avslöjar att litiumjoner påverkar ytsammansättningen annorlunda beroende på jonstrukturen av jonvätskan. Detta visar att ytselektiviteten starkt beror på jonkemin. En repulsiv dubbellagerkraft yttrar sig anmärkningsvärt för EAN vid 393 K vilket inte observeras vid lägre temperaturer. Detta indikerar en ändring i EANs mikroskopiska sammansättningsbeteende och har generella återverkningar för hur jonvätskor uppfattas. En ny metod har utvecklats baserad på en kvartskristall mikrovåg för att undersöka hur ytsammansättningen av jonvätskor reagerar på polarisering. Denna metod visar att det adsorberade lagret av både en ren jonvätska och en jonvätska löst i olja kan kontrolleras genom att applicera spänningar med olika tecken och storlekar. Dessutom möjliggör metoden två oberoende tillvägagångssätt för att övervaka laddningarna under polarisering vilket kan användas för att kvantifiera ytsammansättningen. Tekniken ger också information om jonkinetik och ytselektivitet. Detta arbete bidrar till den grundläggande förståelsen av gränsskiktet mellan fasta ytor och jonvätskor och visar att ytsammansättningen av jonvätskor kan kontrolleras och övervakas med olika tillvägagångssätt. / <p>QC 20160518</p>

The biological membrane, which is composed of a lipid bilayer embedded with numerous proteins, defines the cell boundary, separating the cell interior from the external environment. It serves as a gatekeeper and entry point for various molecular and ionic species. This thesis describes experimental and simulation studies of the interactions of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with model membranes (lipid bilayers). The unique properties of CNTs make them ideal candidates for many nanotechnological applications. They can, however, pose a potential risk as toxins. While research into the positive benefits of CNTs continues, very little is known about their basic interactions with cellular components. It is particularly important to understand the interaction of CNTs with biological membranes, which form the primary physical barrier surrounding a cell. Coarse grained molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and atomic force microscopy (AFM) have been used to study the interactions of CNTs and lipid bilayers. They are investigated in a controlled manner using MD simulations, while AFM has allowed the controlled approach-to-contact and insertion of CNTs into bilayers. A number of effects are reported, including lipid creep along the CNT and bilayer thickening upon contact. The robustness of this response is established using different force fields and lipid species. The experimental results show an unusual reaction to mechanical indentation, and are further backed by MD simulations. The lipid bilayer response to multiple CNTs is studied and the effects of CNTs on bilayer conformation and lipid diffusion are reported. CNT internalisation from the solvent is observed in the simulations. Indeed, many of the observed phenomena are reminiscent of those known from the field of membrane protein. This project focuses on understanding the basic molecular interactions of CNTs with lipid bilayers and addresses the gap between experimental and computational work.

Thesis (PhD (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering at the University of Stellenbosch / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Planar weak link structures, such as micro-bridges, variable thickness bridges and nanobridges, have always attracted a lot of attention. Their potential to behave as real Josephson elements make them useful devices, with numerous applications. Powerful techniques, such as focused ion-beam and electron-beam lithography, were successfully used and are well understood in planar weak link structure fabrication. In this dissertation the results of an experimental study on planar weak link structures are presented. For the first time these structures have been successfully fabricated using AFM nanolithography on hard high-temperature superconducting YBCO tracks, where diamond coated silicon tips were used as a ploughing tool. Superconducting YBCO thin films were deposited on different substrates, using inverted cylindrical magnetron sputtering. The films were used to fabricate micro-bridges, variable thickness bridges and nano-bridges, by using conventional photolithography, argon ion-beam milling and AFM nanolithography. The measured I-V characteristics of the fabricated micro-bridges (width down to 1.9 µm), variable thickness bridges (thickness down to 15 nm) and nano-bridge (width down to 490 nm) showed well defined DC and AC Josephson effect characteristics. For better understanding of the behaviour of these types of weak links, critical current versus temperature measurements, and magnetic field modulation of the critical current measurements, were also performed, with the results and discussions given inside the chapters. The major challenges that were experienced in the laboratory during the fabrication processes and the operation of the fabricated devices are also discussed, with the solutions given where appropriate. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Swak-skakel vlakstrukture, soos mikrobr.ue, br.ue met veranderlike dikte en nanobr.ue, het nog altyd baie aandag getrek. Hul het die potensiaal om soos werklike Josephson-elemente te kan funksioneer en is, as gevolg hiervan, nuttige toestelle met veelvuldige toepassings. Kragtige tegnieke, soos gefokuste ioonstraal- en elektronstraal litografie, is suksesvol gebruik en word goed verstaan in die vervaardiging van swak-skakel vlakstrukture. In hierdie proefskrif word die resultate van ¡¦n eksperimentele studie van swak-skakel vlakstrukture voorgel.e. Vir die eerste keer is hierdie strukture suksesvol vervaardig, deur gebruik te maak AFMnanolitografie op harde, ho¡Le-temperatuur supergeleier YBCO (Yttrium Barium Koperoksied) spore, waar diamantbedekte silikonpunte gebruik is as ploeginstrument. ¡¦n Dun lagie van supergeleidende YBCO is op verskillende substrate gedeponeer, deur gebruik te maak van omgekeerde silindriese magnetron verstuiwing. Die dun lagies is gebruik in die vervaardiging van mikrobr.ue, br.ue met veranderlike dikte en nanobr.ue, deur die gebruik van gewone fotolitografie, argon-ioonstraal frees en AFM nanolitografie. Die gemete I-V eienskappe van die vervaardigde mikrobr.ue (met breedte so laag as 1.9 µm), veranderlike-dikte br.ue (dikte tot 15 nm) en nanobr.ue (breedte so min as 490 nm) toon goed gedefinieerde GS en WS eienskappe van die Josephson-effek. Ten einde die gedrag van hierdie tipes swak-skakels beter te kan verstaan, is metings gedoen van kritieke stroom teenoor temperatuur, asook magnetiese veld modulasie van die kritieke stroom. Hierdie resultate en besprekings daarvan word binne die toepaslike hoofstukke aangebied. Die grootste uitdagings wat in die laboratorium, sowel as met die toetsing van die vervaardigde toestelle ondervind is, word ook bespreek. Waar moontlik, word toepaslike oplossings voorgestel.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In the ongomg search for better and faster ways to characterize complex polymer systems, it is often necessary to couple different analytical techniques in order to obtain information on more than one distributed property. In this study, the coupling of chromatography and spectroscopy to atomic force microscopy (AFM) was attempted for the first time, and thus the term "LC-FTIR-AFM" was coined. This new hyphenated technique combines the separation power of liquid chromatography (LC) and the ability of infrared spectroscopy (IR) to identify almost any organic compound, with the AFM's ability to be used for thermal analysis of individual phases in polymer mixtures. The first two steps of this new technique comprise (i) the separation of compounds in a mixture via gradient polymer elution chromatography (GPEC) and (ii) the identification of each compound by means of LC-FTIR analysis. In the final step, LC-FTIR analysis is coupled to AFM through the use of the LC-FTIR interface. A number of polymer mixtures were analysed by means of the novel technique that was developed, in order to establish its validity and value as a characterization technique of the future. The influence of fllm thickness and molar mass on the thermal parameters of individual components in mixtures, measured by this technique, were also investigated. This technique adds a new dimension to conventional thermal analysis methods, since it allows the thermal transitions of individual polymer phases in multiphase polymers to be resolved directly after separation and identification. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In die voortdurende soektog na beter en vinniger maniere om komplekse polimeersisteme te karakteriseer, is dit soms nodig om verskillende analitiese tegnieke met mekaar te koppel ten einde inligting aangaande twee of meer verspreide eienskappe te bekom. Gedurende hierdie studie is daar gepoog om chromatografie en spektroskopie met atoominteraksie-mikroskopie (atomic force microscopy, AFM) te koppel. Gevolglik het die term "LC-FTIR-AFM" ontstaan. Hierdie nuwe koppelingstegniek kombineer die kragtige skeidingspotensiaal van vloeistofchromatografie en die vermoë van infrarooispektroskopie om byna enige organiese verbinding positief te identifiseer, met die atoominteraksie-mikroskoop se potensiaal om as 'n termiese analise metode vir individuele fases in polimeermengsels te dien. Die eerste twee stappe van die tegniek behels (i) die skeiding van verbindings in 'n mengsel deur middel van gradient-hoë-druk-vloeistofchromatografie en (ii) die identifisering van afsonderlike verbindings deur vloeistofchromatografie gekoppel aan infrarooispektroskopie. Gedurende die finale stap word vloeistofchromatografie en infrarooispektroskopie aan die atoominteraksie-mikroskoop gekoppel deur gebruik te maak van die LC-FTIR koppelingsapparaat. 'n Aantal polimeermengsels is geanaliseer deur die nuwe tegniek hierbo beskryf, ten einde die geldigheid en waarde daarvan as 'n analitiese metode vir die toekoms vas te stel. Die invloed van film diktes en molekulêre massa op die termiese oorgange van individuele komponente in mengsels, soos gemeet deur hierdie metode, is ook ondersoek. Hierdie tegniek voeg 'n nuwe dimensie tot konvensionele termiese analise metodes deurdat dit die bepaling van termiese oorgange van individuele polimeerfases III multifase polimere, direk na afloop van skeiding en identifikasie moontlik maak.

<p>Heteroepitaxial SiGeC layers have attracted immenseattention as a material for high frequency devices duringrecent years. The unique properties of integrating carbon inSiGe are the additional freedom for strain and bandgapengineering as well as allowing more aggressive device designdue to the potential for increased thermal budget duringprocessing. This work presents different issues on epitaxialgrowth, defect density, dopant incorporation and electricalproperties of SiGeC epitaxial layers, intended for variousdevice applications.</p><p>Non-selective and selective epitaxial growth of Si_1-x-yGe_xC_y(0≤x≤30, ≤y≤0.02) layershave been optimized by using high-resolution x-ray reciprocallattice mapping. The incorporation of carbon into the SiGematrix was shown to be strongly sensitive to the growthparameters. As a consequence, a much smaller epitaxial processwindow compared to SiGe epitaxy was obtained. Differentsolutions to decrease the substrate pattern dependency (loadingeffect) of SiGeC growth have also been proposed. The key pointin these methods is based on reduction of surface migration ofthe adsorbed species on the oxide. In non-selective epitaxy,this was achieved by introducing a thin silicon polycrystallineseed layer on the oxide. The thickness of this seed layer had acrucial role on both the global and local loading effect, andon the epitaxial quality. Meanwhile, in selective epitaxy,polycrystalline stripes introduced around the oxide openingsact as migration barriers and reduce the loading effecteffectively. Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) was performedto remove the polycrystalline stripes on the oxide.</p><p>Incorporation and electrical properties of boron-doped Si_1-x-yGe_xC_ylayers (x=0.23 and 0.28 with y=0 and 0.005) with aboron concentration in the range of 3x10¹⁸-1x10²¹atoms/cm3 have also been investigated. In SiGeClayers, the active boron concentration was obtained from thestrain compensation. It was also found that the boron atomshave a tendency to locate at substitutional sites morepreferentially compared to carbon. These findings led to anestimation of the Hall scattering factor of the SiGeC layers,which showed good agreement with theoretical calculations.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>Silicon germanium carbon (SiGeC), Epitaxy,Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), Loading effect, Highresolution x-ray diffraction (HRXRD), Hall measurements, Atomicforce microscopy (AFM).</p>

This work deals with the study of the drying-mediated assembly of colloidal gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) in mesoscale aggregation patterns and their manipulation by atomic force microscopy (AFM) on model surfaces. The assembly of NPs in mesoscale and complex aggregation patterns assisted by the wetting and the drying of complex fluids (suspensions of NPs, NPs/biopolymers mixed solutions) on homogeneous and heterogeneous molecular surfaces was studied. This issue is important, both for understanding fundamental processes of self-organization, and for generating new functional mesostructures. The drying of complex fluids often leads to the emergence of highly complex aggregation structures as shown and discussed in this work. The richness and the aesthetics of these complex structures generated by these interfacial phenomena reflect not only the bulk properties of fluids (different sizes and lengths- scales, kinetic changes in state), but more importantly, the coupling between the fluid properties and those of the substrate surface (wetting interactions, confinement, hydrodynamics). In the case of two important heterogeneous fluids which are Au NPs and polysaccharide solutions, these drying-mediated structure formation lead to the genesis of unusually large and highly ramified dendrites aggregation patterns. The growth mechanism and the critical parameters that control the morphogenesis of these complexes structures are addressed in this work. In addition, the aging mechanisms and kinetics of these structures that are metastable and evolve either through direct dislocation via clusters NPs mobility on the surface, or through undulation-induced roughning of the dendrite branches. To better understanding this NPs mobility and thus the dislocation mechanism of the aging, a detailed study based on the manipulation of NPs by atomic force microscopy in tapping mode (AFM) was developed. The threshold dissipated energy to manipulate (move) the NPs can be quantified according to the intrinsic parameters of the particle (size, shape, and chemical nature), the chemical nature and topography of the substrate, and finally the operating and environment conditions. This work enabled us to understand the mechanisms and characterize the critical parameters that may intervene in the dislocation (aging) of NPs-based functional structures, depending on the nature of the environment liquid and the substrate. Finally, this work proposes an approch of evaluation and of monitoring the stability and the aging of these aggregation structures, in particular, those formed from the drying of films and drops of nano-particles solutions (metal nanoparticles, blood: proteins, viruses ...).

The foundation of vacuum nanoelectronics was laid as early as in 1961 when Kenneth Shoulders proposed the development of vertical field-emission micro-triodes. After years of conspicuous stagnancy in the field much interest has reemerged for the vacuum nanoelectronics in recent years. Electron field emission under high electric field from conventional and exotic nanoemitters, which have now been made possible with the use of modern day technology, has been the driving force behind this renewal of interest in vacuum nanoelectronics. In the research reported in this thesis self-assembled silicon nanostructures were studied as a potential source of field emission for vacuum nanoelectronic device applications. Whiskerlike protruding silicon nanostructures were grown on untreated n- and p-type silicon surfaces using electron-beam annealing under high vacuum. The electrical transport characteristics of the silicon nanostructures were investigated using conductive atomic force microscopy (C-AFM). Higher electrical conductivities for the nanostructured surface compared to that for the surrounding planar silicon substrate region were observed. Non-ideal diode behaviour with high ideality factors were reported for the individual nanostructure-AFM tip Schottky nanocontacts. This demonstration, indicative of the presence of a significant field emission component in the analysed current transport phenomena was also detailed. Field emission from these nanostructures was demonstrated qualitatively in a lift-mode interleave C-AFM study. A technique to fabricate integrated field emission diodes using silicon nanostructures in a CMOS process technology was developed. The process incorporated the nanostructure growth phase at the closing steps in the process flow. Turn-on voltages as low as ~ 0.6 V were reported for these devices, which make them good candidates for incorporation into standard CMOS circuit applications. Reproducible I V characteristics exhibited by these fabricated devices were further studied and field emission parameters were extracted. A new consistent and reliable method to extract field emission parameters such as effective barrier height, field conversion factor, and total emitting area at the onset of the field emission regime was developed and is reported herein. The developed parameter extraction method used a unified electron emission approach in the transition region of the device operation. The existence of an electron-supply limited current saturation region at very high electric field was also confirmed. Both the C-AFM and the device characterization studies were modelled and simulated using the finite element method in COMSOL Multiphysics. The experimental results – the field developed at various operating environments – are explained in relation to these finite element analyses. Field enhancements at the atomically sharp nanostructure apexes as suggested in the experimental studies were confirmed. The nanostructure tip radius effect and sensitivity to small nanostructure height variation were investigated and mathematical relations for the nanostructure regime of our interest were established. A technique to optimize the cathode-opening area was also demonstrated. Suggestions related to further research on field emission from silicon nanostructures, optimization of the field emission device fabrication process, and fabrication of field emission triodes are elaborated in the final chapter of this thesis. The experimental, modelling, and simulation works of this thesis indicate that silicon field emission devices could be integrated into the existing CMOS process technology. This integration would offer goods from both the worlds of vacuum and solid-sate nanoelectronics – fast ballistic electron transport, temperature insensitivity, radiation hardness, high packing density, mature technological backing, and economies of scale among other features.

The work of this thesis comprises extensive Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy (NC-AFM) characterization of clean metal-oxide (YSZ(100)/(111) and MgO(100)) and graphitic (HOPG) supports as templates for the novel, photochemically induced nucleation of cobalt oxide nanostructures, particularly Cobalt (III) Oxide. The nanostructure-support surfaces were also studied by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) to verify the nature of the supported cobalt oxide and to corroborate the surface topographic and phase NC-AFM data. Heteroepitaxial growth of Co2O3 nanostructures proves to exhibit a variety of different growth modes based on the structure of the support surface. On this basis, single-crystal support surfaces ranging from nonpolar to polar and atomically flat to highly defective and reactive were chosen, again, yielding numerous substrate-nanostructure interactions that could be probed by high-performance surface science techniques.

Aim of this student research project was to develop an Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3 ) ALD process from trimethylaluminum (TMA) and Ozone in comparison of two shower head designs. Then studying the detailed characteristics of Al2O3 ALD process using various measurement techniques such as Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM). The real-time ALD growth was studied by in-situ SE. In-situ SE is very promising technique that allows the time-continuous as well as time-discrete measurement of the actual growth over an ALD process time. The following ALD process parameters were varied and their inter-dependencies were studied in detail: exposure times of precursor and co-reactant as well as Argon purge times, the deposition temperature, total process pressure, flow dynamics of two different shower head designs. The effect of varying these ALD process parameters was studied by looking upon ALD cycle attributes. Various ALD cycle attributes are: TMA molecule adsorption (Mads ), Ligand removal (Lrem ), growth kinetics (KO3 ) and growth per cycle (GPC).