This study examines the effects of credit risk and information disclosure in the new bank regulating system Basel II on bank and bank customer. The effects are then discussed in a perspective of the economic man and information asymmetric theories. Furthermore is the Basel II effects on the capital adequacy of Andelsbanken för Åland examined. The approach of the study is qualitative and several interviews with individuals on different levels of the examined bank, Andelsbanken för Åland, have been carried out during the collecting of empirical facts about the effects of the regulating change from the Basel I system to Basel II. The research findings are as follows: Andelsbanken för Åland have increased its capital adequacy ratio from 12,7 percent to 14,4 percent, mostly due to lower risk weights on housing mortgages compared to Basel I. Andelsbanken för Åland have started to use a completely new credit risk and customer assessment system which classifies every customer and gives them a credit rating. The system cause a much heavier information gathering of the customers profile as well as a much better assessment of risk than the previous system, which the bank finds positive. The new system also cause differentiated pricing on loans. Additionally it has contributed to a renovation of the bank. The bank has also started to publish more information about its risk-taking and management. Bank customers have to release much more information about themselves and their life, economically as well as personally during a more extensive interview in the credit process. The differentiated pricing cause interest rates to differ based on the customers rating. As an effect of the higher disclosure of bank information, customers can better compare banks. This effect is of greater importance for the bank customers that have depositions in excess of the government deposit assurance. The new credit risk and customer assessment system is a rational development due to the new Basel II-rules. Without these rules the development wouldn’t have been rational due to high costs and the traditional pricing of loans. The higher disclosure on risk taking and management cause incentives for the bank to handle these better. Bank customers today have higher incentives to better mange the aspects that are included in their rating due to the differentiated pricing on loans. Furthermore they, especially them with depositions in excess of the government deposit assurance, have greater incentives to compare banks due to the higher disclosure of bank information. The more extensive information gathering of the customers profile as well as the higher disclosure of bank information have lowered the level of asymmetric information in the banks process of credit granting and the customers choice of bank, making these two more effective.

Baselregelverket är en samling rekommendationer och riktlinjer som syftar till att skapa global finansiell stabilitet. Det gällande regelverket, Basel II, riktar sig till kreditinstitut och andra värdepappersbolag i de länder som har valt att införliva regelverket i nationell lag. Basel II införlivades i svensk rätt i början av 2007 och därmed har regelverket blivit bindande för svenska banker.   Basel II stipulerar att banker ska använda internt utvecklade modeller för att utvärdera risk och kapitaltäckning samt fastställer att denna utvärdering ska användas för beslutsfattande i den dagliga verksamheten. Regelverkets krav har bland annat resulterat i ökad bolagsstyrning då utvecklandet av strategier och kontrollsystem för sådana typer av riskmodeller är något som sker på hög organisatorisk nivå, vid bankens huvudkontor. Problematiken i detta är att implementeringen av ett regelverk som influerar bankens organisationsstruktur blir en svårhanterlig fråga och får stor inverkan på arbetet för anställda med operativa befattningar.    Denna studie syftar till att genom åtta semistrukturerade intervjuer med anställda på operativ nivå vid fyra svenska banker skapa insikt i vilket inflytande regleringar, som Basel II, har på motivation i arbetet. Fynden indikerar att regleringar som medför förändring i arbete på operativ nivå kan influera motivationen om de anställda inte förstår syftet. Utifrån de anställdas uppfattningar kan vi påvisa att kommunikation och ledarskap spelar en avgörande roll för hur anställdas kommer uppleva sådana regleringars inverkan. Med avseende på detta resultat görs tolkningen att kommunikation och ledarskap bör anpassas utifrån de anställdas tidigare erfarenheter och kunskaper för att inte förändring i arbetet ska ge upphov till otillfredsställelse på grund av bristande förståelse. / The Basel Accords are a collection of recommendations and regulations aimed to establish a global financial stability. Basel II is directed towards credit institution and investment firms in those countries that have chosen to incorporate the regulations in national law. In Sweden the Basel II was incorporated in the Swedish law at the beginning of 2007, and since then the Basel II has became binding for the Swedish banks.   Basel II stipulates that banks must use in-house developed models to evaluate risks and capital requirement, and defines that the evaluations must be used in decision making in the daily work. The requirements defined by the regulations increase the corporate governance since the development of strategies and control systems for such risk models is done on a high organizational level, at the bank’s head office. The dilemma in this is that the implementation of the regulation, which influences the organizational structure of the bank, becomes a difficult question to manage, and it delivers a huge impact on the employees with operative tasks.   Through eight semi-structured interviews with employees with operative tasks at four Swedish banks, it is the purpose of this study to create an insight into what influence regulations, such as Basel II, have on the motivation at work. The findings indicate that regulations, which bring changes to work on operative level, can affect the motivation if the employees do not understand the purpose. Based on the views of the employees we can show that communication and leadership play a decisive role for how the employees will experience the influence of such regulations. Regarding this result the interpretation is that communication and leadership should be based on the employees’ previously experiences and knowledge, to prevent that change in work will cause dissatisfaction because of defective understanding.

Problem and purpose: The authors were interested in studying how large Swedish banks managed liquidity risks when facing the financial crisis of 2008 and whether the implementation of Basel II framework had an impact on the major Swedish banks' capital adequacy. Furthermore, the authors intend to examine how, based on the analysis of the implementation of Basel II, the introduction of Basel III will affect major Swedish banks' liquidity in the future. Method: The essay is written from a quantitative approach and has a deductive perspective. Data was collected from the annual reports of the selected banks to later use relevant theories to analyze the work. Theory: This part of the essay presents relevant theories, a detailed description of the Basel regulatory framework and its requirements, rules for capital adequacy and to relevant key to achieve the Basel regulatory requirements are considered. Furthermore the authors present criticism of the Basel framework and a summary of the key theoretical points to be used for analyzing empirical data. Empirical: In this chapter the data collected from selected banks is presented and processed. Conclusion: The essay authors present the deficiencies and weaknesses that make the Basel II regulatory framework inadequate for the Swedish financial market. Essay authors also present their opinions regarding how the latest form of the Basel regulations could have a more significant influence on the long-term stability of Swedish banks and how this may increase protection against potential liquidity risks.

2005年，消費金融卡等小額貸款、現金卡以及信用卡的循環利息借貸因發卡浮濫、信用擴張過快而引發了卡債風暴，這個風暴不僅影響金融機構的財務風險，也因為小額債務人人數眾多，因而引發了嚴重的社會經濟問題。在發卡銀行深受打擊之際，金管會規定台灣金融機構於2006年底開始實施新巴塞爾資本協定（the New Basel Capital Accord），要求各銀行必須具備足夠的資本適足性及風險管理能力，並建立內部評等系統和風險預警機制。本研究即是針對信用風險，在符合新巴塞爾資本協定下運用商業智慧技術建立一套完善的控管制度，期望在潛在風險客戶在發生違約的行為前即能及時預警並採取相關措施。 / 本研究是以國內某家發卡銀行為研究對象，針對其信用卡持有人建構一套預警模型。建模資料是信用卡持有人部分基本資料以及在某年一整年的交易行為。原始資料共有47,888筆，總共有64個變數。分別利用羅吉斯迴歸、決策樹和類神經網路三種方法建模，最後以羅吉斯迴歸表現最好，以學歷、信用額度、最近一次逾期至今月份數、最近十二個月平均餘額、最近十二個月預借現金次數、最近十二個月循環動用月份數和最近十二個月平均繳款率七個預測變數對於影響客戶需要預警與否較為顯著，結果本模型的整體預測率為86.29%；而對於預警客戶中可以準確預測的比率為69.98%。

The term procyclicality refers to the ability of a system to amplify business cycles. The recent financial crisis has revealed that the current regulatory framework, Basel II, affects the business cycle in exactly that manner. The newly published Basel III therefore sought to include tools that would mitigate the procyclical nature of regulatory framework. The aim of the thesis is to analyze whether such tools are effective and whether the procyclicality under Basel III has been mitigated when compared to Basel II. In order to conduct such analysis we employ a simple model with the households and firms sector. Using the OLS estimation method we estimate the sensitivity of Basel risk weights to the business cycle under both Basel II and Basel III conditions. As the Basel III framework has been published only recently, there are few studies that would analyze its effect on procyclicality. The main contribution of this thesis consists of implementation of Basel III countercyclical tools and the comparison between both frameworks. The thesis further contributes to the existing literature by conducting the analysis on the data for the Visegrád Group, that is for the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Poland. JEL Classification E32, E44, E58, G21 Keywords procyclicality, Basel II, Basel III, banking...

This study assesses the impact of the Basel III regulatory framework on interbank contagion. It focuses on the direct interbank contagion that spreads via interbank foreign claims among national banking sectors. A balance sheet-based network model employs the quarterly consolidated banking statistics, collected by the Bank for International Settlements, to simulate the consequences of credit and funding shock under stressed market conditions. Compared to the Basel II, the Basel III regulatory framework reduces the probability of interbank contagion (following a simulated default of one banking sector) from 31% to 14% and lowers the impact of contagion by 63% in terms of average loss for a banking sector. The simulations under both regulatory frameworks show that relatively smaller banking sectors can trigger severe interbank contagion comparable to large banking sectors. Throughout the 2005-2009 period, the Basel III regulatory framework stabilizes the fluctuations of the scope of interbank contagion.

Le thème central de ma thèse de doctorat est le Règlement sous de multiples formes. Plus précisément, je me concentre sur les paramètres affectés par obligatoire, facultatif ou en auto-développés le règlement. Les trois chapitres de l'actuel document utilisent comme paramètre l'industrie bancaire dans les pays de l'Union européenne (UE). Au cours de la dernière décennie, le secteur bancaire a subi plusieurs transformations de réglementation qui ont influé sur la quantité et la qualité de l'information divulguée. En outre, la récente crise financière avait les banques dans le projecteur, compte tenu de leur rôle central dans la chute des marchés.Dans le premier chapitre, "Ne Bâle II affectent le marché Évaluation des provisions pour pertes sur prêts discrétionnaires?", j'étudie l'impact de l'Accord de capitaux lI de Bâle 2008 mise en oeuvre dans l'Union européenne. Bâle II était destiné à mettre un niveau accru de transparence concernant les opérations des banques. Par conséquent, Bâle II introduit une incitation pour les banques à (1) accroître leur approvisionnement prospectives et (2) de réduire leur approvisionnement opportunistes.Dans notre établissement, Bâle II introduit des mesures d'incitation pour les gestionnaires de reconnaître moins de revenu discrétionnaire croissant des provisions pour pertes sur prêts (DLLPs). Le revenu-DLLPs croissante sont importants puisqu'ils sont reconnus dans la littérature comme surtout opportuniste. Ces conclusions sont d'une importance particulière compte tenu de l'évolution réglementaire récentes et à venir dans le secteur bancaire. Je veux parler de l'introduction des IFRS 9 en 2018 et celui de Bâle III en 2019. Nos résultats soulignent la nécessité pour la comptabilité et les autorités de réglementation bancaire de coordonner leurs efforts avec mépris à leur façon innée des objectifs différents.Pour ma deuxième chapitre, "A Bâle II induit le conservatisme a réduit le niveau de la gestion des revenus des banques de l'UE?" Bâle II réduit le pouvoir discrétionnaire des provisions qui est utilisé dans la période de pré-adoption de rapports opportunistes (à reconnaître les recettes croissantes pour atteindre les gains gestion DLLPs objectifs).Le troisième chapitre, " l'impact de la Banque de l'UE 2010 Test de stress La divulgation des résultats sur les banques " gains " gestion analyse l'impact que la divulgation de la Prospective 2010 Test de stress macroéconomique (ST) a sur le niveau des banques participantes opportuniste reporting. Plus précisément, il teste si la divulgation diminue et par conséquent l'opacité de la banque gains (établie de façon approximative par gestion et régularisation du revenu de référence pour le battre) testé les banques par rapport aux non-banques testées.Nous constatons que les banques qui entrent dans l'ère de réduire le niveau de leurs coups de référence. Dans la corroboration avec les résultats précédents, nous documentons que la divulgation de la ST réduit probablement les résultats de l'opacité des banques et gestionnaires de réduire les rapports opportunistes en raison du renforcement l'examen public. Ce document est le premier d'analyser l'impact que la divulgation de la ST Résultats a sur le niveau des gains des banques des pratiques de gestion et qu'elle ajoute à la littérature ST émergents.Dans l'ensemble, ma thèse jette de la lumière sur les questions actuelles et pertinentes qui concernent l'un des plus minutieusement examiné et critiqué les industries dans le monde. En analysant l'effet de différents ensembles de règlements sur les rapports financiers et sur l'évaluation des nombres de comptabilité, cette thèse apporte de nombreuses contributions à la littérature académique et jette de la lumière sur les effets pratiques de chevauchement des règlements dans l'UE. / The central theme of my PhD thesis is regulation under multiple forms. Specifically, I focus on settings impacted by mandatory, optional or self-developed regulation. All three chapters in the current document use as setting the banking industry in countries from the European Union (EU). In the last decade, the banking industry has faced several regulatory transformations that impacted the quantity and quality of the disclosed information. Moreover, the recent financial crisis had banks in the spotlight, given their central role in the fall of the markets.In the first chapter, "Does Basel II affect the Market Valuation of Discretionary Loan Loss Provisions?", I study the impact of the 2008 Basel lI Capital Accord implementation in the European Union. Basel II was intended to bring an enhanced level of transparency regarding banks' operations. Consequently, Basel II introduces an incentive for banks to (1) increase their forward-looking provisioning and (2) to reduce their opportunistic provisioning.In our setting, Basel II introduces incentives for managers to recognize less income-increasing discretionary loan loss provisions (DLLPs). The income-increasing DLLPs are important as they are recognized in the literature as especially opportunistic. These findings are of particular importance given the recent and forthcoming regulatory developments in the banking industry. I refer to the introduction of IFRS 9 in 2018 and that of Basel III in 2019. Our results highlight the need for accounting and banking regulators to coordinate their efforts with disregard to their innately different objectives.For my second chapter, "Has Basel II Induced Conservatism Reduced the Level of EU Banks' Earnings Management?" Basel II reduces discretion in provisioning that is used in the pre-adoption period for opportunistic reporting (to recognize income-increasing DLLPs for reaching earnings management objectives).The third chapter, "The Impact of the 2010 EU Bank Stress-test Results Disclosure on Banks' Earnings Management" analyzes the impact that the disclosure of the forward-looking 2010 macroeconomic stress-test (ST) has on the level of participating banks’ opportunistic reporting. Specifically, it tests if the disclosure reduces bank opacity and consequently earnings management (proxied by income smoothing and benchmark beating) for the tested banks relative to non-tested banks.We find that the banks which enter the ST reduce the level of their benchmark beating. In corroboration with the previous results, we document that the disclosure of the ST's results likely reduces banks' opacity and managers reduce the opportunistic reporting due to enhanced public scrutiny. This paper is the first to analyze the impact that the disclosure of the ST results has on the level of banks' earnings management practices and it adds to the emerging ST literature.Overall, my thesis sheds light on current and relevant issues that concern one of the most scrutinized and criticised industries in the world. By analyzing the effect of different sets of regulations on financial reporting and on the valuation of accounting numbers, this thesis brings numerous contributions to the academic literature and sheds light over the practical effects of overlapping regulations in the EU.

O Acordo de Capital ?Basiléia 2? traz importantes inovações à regulação prudencial do sistema bancário internacional. A principal delas é a possibilidade dos bancos desenvolverem e utilizarem modelos internos de adequação de capital. Contudo, esta possibilidade exige que estes modelos sejam validados, tanto pelas autoridades supervisoras, quanto pelos demais participantes do mercado. Em virtude disto, o referido Acordo está estruturado em três pilares: Pilar 1, dos requisitos mínimos de capital; Pilar 2, do processo de revisão do órgão supervisor; e Pilar 3, da disciplina de mercado. O Pilar 3 estabelece exigências mínimas e recomendações sobre as informações que devem ser divulgadas pelos bancos, a fim de garantir ao mercado as condições para avaliar os riscos incorridos pelo banco e sua adequação da quantidade de capital. Sob a luz das recomendações do Acordo ?Basiléia 2?, foi analisada a transparência das demonstrações contábeis dos principais bancos brasileiros. Concluiu-se que a divulgação dos bancos no Brasil encontra-se num estágio incipiente, uma vez que foram divulgados apenas 26% dos itens pesquisados, próximo ao mínimo exigido pela legislação brasileira em vigor, enquanto que os bancos internacionais, analisados em uma pesquisa conduzida pelo Comitê da Basiléia, divulgaram 63% dos itens. / The ?Basel 2? brings important innovations to prudential regulation of international banking system. The main innovation is the possibility of banks to develop and use internal models to capital adequacy. However, this possibility demands these models to be validated by both the supervisory authorities and the market participants. As a result, the Accord is structured into three pillars: pillar 1 ? minimum capital requirement, pillar 2 ? supervisory review process, and pillar 3 ? market discipline. The pillar 3 establishes minimum requirements and recommendations about the information ought to be disclosed by banks, in order to guarantee the market the conditions to assess the risks incurred by the bank and its capital adequacy. According to the recommendations of ?Basel 2?, the financial statements disclosure of the most important Brazilian banks was analyzed. It was concluded the disclosure of banks in Brazil is in a budding stage, since only 26% of the items surveyed were disclosed, nearly the minimum required by Brazilian legislation in effect, whereas the international banks analyzed in a survey conducted by the Basel Committee disclosed 63% of the items.

O Acordo de Capital ?Basiléia 2? traz importantes inovações à regulação prudencial do sistema bancário internacional. A principal delas é a possibilidade dos bancos desenvolverem e utilizarem modelos internos de adequação de capital. Contudo, esta possibilidade exige que estes modelos sejam validados, tanto pelas autoridades supervisoras, quanto pelos demais participantes do mercado. Em virtude disto, o referido Acordo está estruturado em três pilares: Pilar 1, dos requisitos mínimos de capital; Pilar 2, do processo de revisão do órgão supervisor; e Pilar 3, da disciplina de mercado. O Pilar 3 estabelece exigências mínimas e recomendações sobre as informações que devem ser divulgadas pelos bancos, a fim de garantir ao mercado as condições para avaliar os riscos incorridos pelo banco e sua adequação da quantidade de capital. Sob a luz das recomendações do Acordo ?Basiléia 2?, foi analisada a transparência das demonstrações contábeis dos principais bancos brasileiros. Concluiu-se que a divulgação dos bancos no Brasil encontra-se num estágio incipiente, uma vez que foram divulgados apenas 26% dos itens pesquisados, próximo ao mínimo exigido pela legislação brasileira em vigor, enquanto que os bancos internacionais, analisados em uma pesquisa conduzida pelo Comitê da Basiléia, divulgaram 63% dos itens. / The ?Basel 2? brings important innovations to prudential regulation of international banking system. The main innovation is the possibility of banks to develop and use internal models to capital adequacy. However, this possibility demands these models to be validated by both the supervisory authorities and the market participants. As a result, the Accord is structured into three pillars: pillar 1 ? minimum capital requirement, pillar 2 ? supervisory review process, and pillar 3 ? market discipline. The pillar 3 establishes minimum requirements and recommendations about the information ought to be disclosed by banks, in order to guarantee the market the conditions to assess the risks incurred by the bank and its capital adequacy. According to the recommendations of ?Basel 2?, the financial statements disclosure of the most important Brazilian banks was analyzed. It was concluded the disclosure of banks in Brazil is in a budding stage, since only 26% of the items surveyed were disclosed, nearly the minimum required by Brazilian legislation in effect, whereas the international banks analyzed in a survey conducted by the Basel Committee disclosed 63% of the items.

För att förhindra uppkomsten av bankkriser och stärka förtroendet för kreditmarknaden beslutade Basel-kommittén den 1 januari 1993 införa Basel I-systemet. Systemet hade som mål att skärpa kapitaltäckningsreglerna, dock har Basel I-systemet ansetts otillräckligt. Basel-kommittén utarbetade nya rekommendationer, som togs i bruk 1 februari, 2007, under benämningen Basel II. Förutom att skapa mer transparent kreditmarknad förändrades även beräkningen av bankernas kapitaltäckningsgrad. Vid starten av vår uppsats hade bankerna varit tvungna att följa Basel II rekommendationerna sedan två månader tillbaka. De visade sig dock att bankerna arbetat med införandet av systemet sedan lång tid tillbaka, för att vara väl förbereda vid införandet. Vi har i vår uppsats valt att inrikta oss på förändringen i Pelare I, beräkningen av kapitaltäckningsgranden, och vad detta har för påverkan på kreditgivningen till små och medelstora företag. Uppsatsen är skriven med en abduktiv metod, där växelverkan mellan teorin och empirin ligger till grund. För att beskriva förändringen av kapitaltäckningsgraden och kreditgivningen, har vi utgått ifrån teorin om dessa för att sedan jämföra i empirin hur bankerna gör. Empirin är uppbyggd efter hur intervjurespondenter på Swedbank och Danske Bank anser förändringen har påverkat banken och deras egna arbetsuppgifter. Undersökningen har visat att inga större förändringar har skett sedan införandet av Basel II. Tre faktorer som påverkat detta är att inga banker har blivit godkända att använda den avancerade metoden för beräkning av den operativa risken, den hårda konkurrens som råder på kreditmarknaden samt att bankerna länge arbetat enligt Basel II-systemet. Bankerna är ändå väldigt positivt inställda till införandet av Basel II, trots merarbetet som införandet fört med sig. / Uppsatsnivå: C