It has been suggested that task-switching costs can be eliminated if participants memorise all stimulus-response mappings thereby avoiding task-switching altogether (Dreisbach, Goschke & Haider, 2006, 2007; Dreisbach & Haider, 2008). This has been labelled the “Look-Up Table” (LUT) approach. It has also been suggested that the LUT approach could potentially explain why animals such as monkeys (Stoet & Snyder, 2003; Avdagic et al., 2013) and pigeons (Castro & Wasserman, 2016; Meier, Lea & McLaren 2016) were able to perform task-switching without showing any task-switching costs (Dreisbach, et al., 2006, 2007; Dreisbach & Haider, 2008; Forrest, Monsell & Mclaren, 2014). In a series of eight experiments the following two questions were addressed: (1) Why do some participants show significant task-switching costs even when they do not switch between tasks (e.g., Forrest, Monsell & Mclaren, 2014)? (2) Can the LUT approach explain the absence of task-switching costs? In an attempt to answer both questions different sources of human task-switching costs are investigated in eight behavioural experiments. Chapter 1 provides an overview of different task-switching paradigms and accounts to explain task-switching costs. Chapter 2 summarises previous attempts to remove human task-switching costs. Evidence for the absence of task-switching costs in animals is also introduced. Following up on previous studies that suggested the LUT approach can explain the absence of task-switching costs, I conducted two task-switching experiments using visual tasks (i.e., colour task and shape task) with bivalent stimuli in an attempt to re-examine the conclusions of previous LUT studies (i.e., Dreisbach, et al., 2006, 2007; Dreisbach & Haider, 2008; Forrest, Monsell & Mclaren, 2014). The results in Chapter 2 indicate that human participants cannot always eliminate task-switching costs and do not always apply the LUT approach when the task-switching strategy is controlled. Therefore, the experiments in Chapter 3 and 4 sought to ascertain the requirements for eliminating task-switching costs when using the LUT approach. The experiments in Chapter 3 applied visual tasks where each task had a different stimulus-set. Experiments in Chapter 4 applied two classical mathematical tasks (i.e., big/small task, odd/even task) and used Chinese numbers as stimuli. The results of the experiments in Chapters 3 and 4 suggest that human participants must be able to give the correct answer without processing task-relevant features from the stimuli in order to eliminate task-switching costs. In the experiment of Chapter 5 the cue-stimulus-response mappings from Experiments 2.1 and 2.2 were rearranged so that switching between conventional tasks and rules became impossible. The results suggest that task-relevant features can trigger interferences thereby causing “task-switching costs” even when participants do not switch between tasks. In Chapter 7, I compare a modified interference account, introduced in Chapter 5, with the compound retrieval account (e.g., Logan & Schneider, 2010) and associative learning account (Forrest et al., 2014; Meier et al., 2016) in order to explain why human participants show task-switching costs even when they do not switch between tasks. I conclude that the modified interference account provides an alternative explanation. It has been proposed that only humans are affected by strong and long-lasting interference from previous trials during task-switching. As a consequence, this interference may explain why human participants consistently show task-switching costs whereas monkeys and pigeons show no task-switching costs.

The past decade has seen increasing research interest in compassion to self and others, both as a construct and a likely precipitant of psychological wellbeing. A growing literature base suggests that psychotherapeutic interventions aimed at increasing self-compassion can help to alleviate negative effects often associated with shame and self-criticism. Compassion-focused interventions have subsequently been proposed for populations likely to experience heightened shame. Despite the interest in this area, only limited research has attempted to explore how compassion is understood and experienced among varying populations. Research that has been undertaken has tended to adopt quantitative approaches, utilising self-report measures validated with well-educated, often academic, populations. There is clearly a need for the construct of compassion to be explored with other populations, particularly those who may be disadvantaged and/or at risk of heightened levels of shame. One such population is young people who have come to the attention of services for engaging in harmful sexual behaviour (HSB). This research therefore intended to fill this gap and extend the existing literature base on compassion by employing a qualitative approach. Nine young people (8 males, 1 female) aged 14-18, who were receiving input from youth offending services for HSB, were recruited for this research. Each participant took part in a one-off interview where they were asked about their understanding and experiences of compassion to and from self and others. Adopting a Constructivist Grounded Theory methodology, data were analysed through an iterative process of constant comparison, leading to the construction of a substantive theoretical model grounded in the data. The resultant model explicates the dynamic and relational process of compassion to self and others experienced by young people who have engaged in HSB. The model is considered in relation to existing literature and implications for clinical practice are discussed, along with directions for future research.

Drawing on basic psychological needs theory (BPNT; Deci & Ryan, 2000), the aim of this thesis was to investigate the influence that pupils' autonomy, competence and relatedness may have upon their personal and academic functioning at school. The purpose was to provide new conceptual insights into BPNT within young adolescents' schools and to identify practically viable interventions that could enhance educational practise. Specifically, this thesis addresses two methodological vacancies within BPNT research and two practically driven investigations. The first methodological consideration involved a person-centred examination that identified distinct pupil profiles based on differences in their psychological need satisfaction composition. Hierarchal cluster analysis revealed four distinct pupil groups. Pupils reporting the highest satisfaction across the three needs displayed the highest levels of well-being, autonomous motivation, teacher rated performance, and the least ill-being. These person-centred findings emphasise the necessity for the satisfaction of all three psychological needs, as well as highlighting specific need deficits that some pupils may experience in classrooms. The second methodological consideration explored how the satisfaction of each psychological need may predict changes in school attainment patterns. Hierarchal growth modelling revealed that higher pupil competence satisfaction was a driving stimulus for temporal attainment increases across the school year, whereas higher pupil relatedness satisfaction buffered against the summer decay of school grades following the summer vacation. These findings offer unique insights into the dynamic nature of school attainment. From a practical perspective, the thesis explored if the candid frustration of different psychological needs underpins active and passive types of classroom disengagement. Structural equation modelling demonstrated the frustration of pupil competence uniquely explained passive disengagement via reduced subjective vitality, whereas experiences of autonomy frustration underpinned both active and passive disengagement but not via subjective vitality. All three disengaging processes were found as a consequence of perceived psychologically controlling teaching. Finally, the thesis explored the feasibility of conducting a novel pupil-focused intervention to enhance pupils' perceptual awareness of their own psychological needs. Using a pupil completed diary-log as a methodology, a two week pilot and focus group discussion highlighted practical issues and recommendations for the potential implementation of a future intervention. These findings indicated that the diary-log may need to be in the form of an electronic application and would need to be combined with existing need supportive sessions. Overall, the thesis findings add to existing knowledge by indicating how pupils' psychological needs may enhance or diminish their academic and psychological development at school. The findings allude to the interplay between the three needs within school contexts and provide insights into the unique role the different psychological needs may have on school attainment and disengagement. The findings also suggest there may be scope to advance existing teacher-focused BPNT interventions by helping pupils become more active in their own experiences of psychological need satisfaction.

Children and older adults are overrepresented in pedestrian accidents (Department for Transport, 2010a, 2010b). Gaze behaviour is cited as a contributing factor in the majority of such accidents (Department for Transport, 2010a, 2010b); however, remarkably little is known about how children, adults and older adults control their gaze during either real or simulated road-crossing tasks. Because evidence suggests that behaviour in the laboratory may not accurately reflect that in more realistic situations (Dicks et al., 2010; ‘t Hart et al., 2009), this thesis used a real-world, active road-crossing task to compare, for the first time, how pedestrians across the lifespan direct their gaze during real road crossing. A total of 70 participants took part in the studies: 42 children (mean age 8.6 yrs, SD = 0.4); 14 young adults (mean age 24.1 yrs, SD = 4.5) and 14 older adults (mean age 70.7 yrs, SD = 4.1). In the first experiment, participants were escorted on a short walk while wearing a mobile eye tracker and asked to cross the roads along the way when they felt it was safe to do so. Gaze behaviour during the last 3 seconds before crossing the road at a signalised crossing was analysed. Both children and older adults directed their gaze significantly less often to traffic-relevant features (such as the road and vehicles) than young adults. However, their gaze patterns were very different. Older adults looked more at the ground ahead of them, which most likely reflects a functional adaptation to reduce the risk of tripping and falling as falls represent a serious risk in this population (Jensen, 1999). Children fixated traffic-irrelevant features more, which may indicate poorer attentional control or insufficient practice or experience. A serendipitous finding from this study was that the presence of a distractor (ice cream) acted to further draw attention away from the direction of oncoming vehicles in the sample of children. Based on these findings, a subsequent aim of the thesis was to explore whether two road-crossing training interventions (Crossroads and Safety Watch) would improve the amount of time children fixated traffic-relevant features of the environment: neither programme was found to have a significant impact on gaze behaviour compared to the control condition (no intervention). Another aim of the thesis that followed from the results of the first experiment was to further examine the attentional control of gaze behaviour in children. Two simulated road-crossings were purposely developed in the laboratory, allowing more controlled investigation of gaze behaviour at (simulated) signalised and unsignalised crossings, with and without a non-spatial secondary task (counting in threes). It was found that the addition of this secondary task affected children's gaze behaviour in one of the simulation types but not the other. This demonstrated that cognitive processes are context dependent and not invariant across conditions. In light of the growing concern raised with respect to the use of artificial laboratory settings and tasks, the final aim of this thesis was to compare gaze behaviour of children under three display conditions: monitor simulation, projector simulation, and real-world; the results suggested that behaviour in the laboratory did not correspond with real-world behaviour. In real road-crossing situations, children looked significantly more often at the ground ahead of them (walkway) and at lights and signs than when performing in the “monitor” or “projector” simulations. These findings further emphasise the context-dependence of cognition and behaviour. This thesis contributes to the argument that a real-world setting provides rich and meaningful data and that, although the laboratory setting has certain methodological advantages, transfer of laboratory findings to the real-world context cannot be assumed. Similarly, road-crossing skills trained in a simulated setting (on a computer) do not appear to transfer to the real-world context. This thesis therefore advocates a real-world approach to the research and training of behaviour and underlying cognitive processes.

Introduction: There has been a growing interest around the use of the Internet, and more recently the role of social media use, within all aspects of day-to-day living. Previous research has found contrasting relationship s between social media use and meaningful social connectivity. Some suggesting Facebook can provide a 'social compensation'; offering an opportunity of developing positive social relationships and self-exploration (Indian & Grieves, 2014; Selfout et al., 2009; Ellison, Steinfield & Lampe, 2008). Other research argued that those who most benefitted from social media already have good social links, thus a 'rich get richer' effect (Kraut et al., 2002). Aim: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between social anxiety symptoms, passive and active Facebook use and online and offline relationships (bridging and bonding) to life satisfaction. Method: A total of 124 completed online questionnaires were collected. The participants completed five quantitative measures. The link to the study was posted on related Facebook pages and online social anxiety forums. Results: The results demonstrated a positive correlation between social anxiety and passive and active Facebook use, but only a significant negative correlation between active Facebook use and life satisfaction. There was also a negative correlation between social anxiety and life satisfaction. A mediation analysis suggested that social anxiety acted as a significant mediating variable between active Facebook use and life satisfaction. Furthermore, a hierarchical regression suggested that it was, when controlling for social anxiety, face-to-face bonding relationship that was the most significant predictor variable for life satisfaction. Clinical implications: The study does not argue a causal relationship between Facebook use, social anxiety, relationship types and a negative impact on life satisfaction. However it does highlighted interesting significant correlation between Facebook use, social anxiety and life satisfaction. This would suggest that within clinical practice an individual’s digital life should be thought about, alongside the more traditional ideas of social networks. Furthermore, the clinical focus of developing of an individual’s face-to-face relationships remains an important factor associated with life satisfaction.

Background: The efficacy and effectiveness of Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (CST) in improving cognition and quality of life (QoL) in individuals with dementia has been well demonstrated (e.g. Spector Thorgrimsen, Woods et al., 2003). However, less is known about the mechanisms of change for these positive outcomes. Objective: This study aimed to explore potential mechanisms of change for CST, including loneliness, social-connectedness and self-efficacy. Design: A within group repeated measure study was adopted. Participants included older adults with mild-moderate dementia participating in CST groups within Older People Community Mental Health Teams across Greater Glasgow and Clyde. Methods: Participants were asked to complete assessment measures on loneliness, social connectedness and self-efficacy prior to, during, and following CST intervention. Wilcoxon signed rank tests explored whether there were significant differences in outcome scores post CST. Spearman correlations examined the relationship between changes in cognition and QoL scores with changes in loneliness, social connectedness and self-efficacy scores post CST. Results: Recruitment was lower than anticipated, with 22 participants recruited and 15 completing pre and post assessments. A significant improvement for self-efficacy was found post CST. Improved QoL scores were associated with decreased loneliness and improved self-efficacy post CST. Conclusions: There are suggestions within these preliminary findings that self-efficacy improves following CST, which is a novel finding. Results also revealed that improvements in QoL were associated with improvements in loneliness and self-efficacy following CST. However, the small sample size in this study means that conclusions that can be drawn are limited. Future research needs to clarify the role of loneliness and self-efficacy in the context of outcomes for CST intervention.

This thesis is concerned with the psychosocial impact of psoriatic arthritis (PsA) - an inflammatory arthritis associated with psoriasis. Although an extensive literature exists on the nature and impact of psoriasis, little is known about the effect that psoriatic arthritis can have on an individual, and the bearing it may have on their quality of life. In order to address this gap in the literature, this study utilised a mixed methods research design, employing a qualitative study with semi-structured interviews, followed by a quantitative, cross-sectional postal survey. In the qualitative study, interviews were conducted with ten people living with psoriatic arthritis. Analysis of the data, using Interpretative Phenomenological Approach (JPA; Smith, 2003) resulted in five emerging themes; pain, functionality (including fatigue), emotions (including depression), coping and treatment experience/management. The quantitative study used a postal survey to measure the variables of interest and explore the associations between them. Survey respondents consisted of a sample (n = 313) drawn from The Psoriasis Association membership and also 44 from a hospital rheumatology clinic. AA participants completed a piloted questionnaire containing questions about their demographic characteristics and validated measures of quality of life. Analysis confirmed that the group with PsA fared less well on all measures of quality of life, than those with just psoriasis. Correlations identified highly significant relationships between most study variables, however of note were the relationships between fatigue and current pain (r = .547) and depression (r = .670). Within the Psoriasis Group correlations of interest included those between anxiety and social functioning (r = -.606) and DLQI and social functioning (r = -.546). Comparison of the correlations identified 18 that were significantly different between the groups. Of these, relationships between physical functioning, pain, fatigue and self efficacy were of particular interest, whilst in the psoriasis group the associations between self efficacy, social functioning and psychological health were noteworthy. This research provides some evidence that different psychosocial variables appear to be involved in the reductions in quality of life experienced by the two clinical populations in this study. The results suggest that in rheumatology and dermatology clinics, the routine measurement of fatigue, self efficacy and psychological health could be used to inform the prescribing of therapies, psychosocial interventions and drugs to improve emotional functioning, so impacting on health-related quality of life. Furthermore, these fmdings have highlighted the need to elucidate the symptom of fatigue in PsA and position it as an appropriate target not only for clinical management, but also psychological management. By advocating fatigue as a legitimate concern, this may offer patients the chance to discuss fatigue explicitly and obtain appropriate health advice.

In this research I employ a social constructionist and a discourse analytic approach in order to theorise the phenomenon of metaphor and its use in therapy. I draw upon critical social psychology debates on notions such as 'self, subjectivity and materiality. Sixteen participants took part in this study. Eight of those were practising therapists, five were clients and three were both therapists in training as well as clients. The participants were interviewed about their views on metaphor and its use in therapy, using semi-structured interview schedules. The three therapists/clients took part in a focus group to explore experiences and views from both positionings and to observe the co-creation of meaning in action. Two versions of discourse analysis were employed in the analysis of the resulting transcripts: Discursive Psychology (DP) (Potter and Wetherell, 1987) and Foucauldian Discourse Analysis (FDA) (Parker, 1992). I argue that while a number of competing and contradictory discursive resources regulate the meaning of 'metaphor', metaphor eschews reductionist conceptualisations. Instead, it is a complex discursive phenomenon with 'real' implications for subjectivity and action. As metaphor makes available certain world-views and subject positions, therapists are called to evaluate their awareness of the implications of the use of metaphor. I also observe that there are currently limited discourses that allow us to talk of metaphor as a process, rather than as a reified entity. I argue that, far from being a medium of mere representation of experience (the 'merely explanatory' account), metaphor actively creates experience. It is within a relational, contextual and collaborative (Le. co-constructive) way, rather than a mere strategic and instrumentalist one, that metaphor can best be understood and utilised in therapy for the benefit of clients.

This thesis investigates subjective states of awareness in memory for emotional information following Tulving's (1985) dual-memory model in which feelings of 'remembering' (including specific recollection of the encounter with the item) index episodic memory and feelings of 'knowing' (memory but without any specific recollection) index semantic memory. Rajaram's (1996) proposal that distinctiveness of processing increases feelings of 'remembering' while fluency of processing increases feelings of 'knowing' was examined. Seven studies utilising news stories with varying emotional content were conducted following the assumption that emotional content would increase both distinctiveness and fluency of processing (cf. Oschner 2000). If emotional information invokes greater distinctiveness of encoding, this would be expected to result in enhanced episodic encoding and increased 'remembering'; greater fluency of processing would be expected to result in enhanced semantic encoding and increased feelings of 'knowing'. The studies broadly support the hypothesis that emotional news stories increased feelings of 'remembering'; however, emotion did not systematically affect feelings of 'knowing'. Earlier research using different materials found increased 'remembering' with enhanced distinctive/elaborative processing. Three studies manipulating depth of processing, level of attention at encoding and repeated study trials replicated these effects with both emotional and neutral news stories. Using news stories as a study material facilitates investigation of the hypothesis that conditions promoting learning (transfer to semantic memory) would lead to increased feelings of 'knowing' (Conway, Gardiner, Perfect, Anderson & Cohen, 1997). This hypothesis was supported for both emotional and neutral stories. The viability of exploring memory awareness for stories varying in emotional content was demonstrated and the results support the view that emotional distinctiveness increases feelings of remembering. It is argued that feelings of remembering depend on both distinctive and fluent encoding processes. It is suggested that emotional fluency at the encoding stage makes emotional information more readily available for episodic encoding and thereby fosters feelings of remembering.

This research constitutes an investigation of unconscious interaction between patient and analyst in situations where psyche and soma are in relation. The literature is extensive, but not coherent, and there exists a need for an overall mapping of the field. The project aims to establish a conceptual topography, grounded in Jung’s psychoid concept, since this applies to a deeply unconscious realm that is neither physiological nor psychological but that partakes of both. A methodology based on the conceptual research of Dreher (2000) is employed, including: a historical study tracing the evolution of Jung’s ideas, from their biological origins in the work of Driesch (1903) and Bleuler (1929), through Jung’s own self-investigation in his Red Book work, to his subsequent theoretical conceptualisations, to establish a public definition for the psychoid concept; and an empirical study, based on expert interviews, to interrogate this definition. The empirical study employs a methodological instrument, developed for this research, for identifying clinicians’ private theories relating to psycho-physical experience. Such instrument comprises the process notes for a single session, in which the psychic fact and the physical fact are combined, and a set of discussion vertices, derived from Sandler (1983), Canestri (2006) and Tuckett (2008), for guiding the interview. The empirical data, constituting the transcripts of the interviews, not the process notes, is analysed using grounded theory. Comparisons from psychoanalysis are employed at all stages of both studies. The results demonstrate that the psychoid concept is valid and clinically useful. The empirical study establishes that clinicians support contrasting views of the transference, namely a symmetrical and mutual transference and an asymmetrical and hierarchical transference, the former being consistent with Jung’s psychoid concept. Unexpectedly, not only Jungians but also some psychoanalysts conceptualised a symmetrical transference, albeit employing different terminology. This adds Popperian weight to the research results.