Macroalgas têm sido descritas no Brasil desde a região entremarés até cerca de 120 metros de profundidade na plataforma continental. O objetivo deste trabalho foi a caracterização da flora marinha bêntica em bancos de rodolitos entre 20-30 metros de profundidade, do infralitoral sul do estado do Espírito Santo. Os métodos utilizados neste projeto incluíram a coleta meticulosa de material através de mergulho autônomo, que preserva o material mais frágil em contraste com a utilização de dragagem. Estudos no infralitoral do estado do Espírito Santo são muito escassos. Esta flora é conhecida principalmente pela análise de material arribado nas praias e proveniente de algumas dragagens e mergulhos. Este trabalho procura contribuir para o inventário da flora de algas marinhas brasileiras, assim como contribuir para o conhecimento da biodiversidade de macroalgas enfocando especialmente a flora do infralitoral através de um estudo sistemático, descrevendo e ilustrando os aspectos mais importantes das espécies encontradas. Foram identificados 138 táxons de algas marinhas, sendo 77,5% (107 táxons) representantes do Filo Rhodophyta, 11,6% (16 táxons) representantes do Filo Chlorophyta e 10,9% (15 táxons) representantes da Classe Phaeophyceae. Observou-se também que a riqueza de espécies de macroalgas no inverno decresce acentuadamente em relação ao período de verão. Esta redução na riqueza de espécies pode ser explicada pela instabilidade gerada nos bancos de rodolitos no período de inverno, pela maior frequência de tempestades. Dois gêneros são referidos pela primeira vez para o Atlântico ocidental, Tsengia K. C.Fan & Y.P. Fan (Halymeniales/Rhodophyta) e Pugetia Kylin (Gigartinales/Rhodophyta). Foram registradas duas novas ocorrências para a flora marinha brasileira, Erythrocladia endophloea M.A. Howe e uma espécie ainda não identificada de Pseudobryopsis Berthold. Dezesseis novas ocorrências foram registradas para o estado do Espírito Santo: Acrochaetium liagorae Børgesen, Anotrichium yagii (Okamura) Baldock, Caulerpa brachypus Harvey, Ceramium affine Setchell & N.L.Gardner, Chondria dasyphylla (Woodward) C. Agardh, Dasya caraibica M.A. Howe, Dasya rigidula (Kützing) Ardissone, Derbesia vaucheriaeformis (Harvey) J. Agardh, Erythrocladia pinnata W.R. Taylor, Gracilaria blodgettii Harvey, Griffithsia globulifera Harvey ex Kützing, Nitophyllum cf. punctatum (Stackhouse) Greville, Rhipiliopsis stri (S. Earle & J.R. Young) Farghaly & Denizot, Streblonema invisibile Hoyt, Udotea unistratea D.S. Littler & M.M. Littler e Yuzurua poiteaui (J.V. Lamouroux) Martin-Lescanne var. gemmifera (Harvey) Sentíes, M.T. Fujii & Díaz-Larrea. Para Platoma cyclocolpum (Montagne) F. Schmitz, Platoma sp. e Dudresnaya sp., espécies de rara ocorrência na costa brasileira, são fornecidas informações sobre estruturas reprodutivas e estádios de pós-fertilização. Estas novas adições na flora indicam a importância da realização de pesquisas em áreas pouco estudadas da costa brasileira. O infralitoral ainda representa uma lacuna no conhecimento das algas e outros organismos marinhos. Estudos que utilizam mergulho autônomo geralmente fornecem novidades para a comunidade científica, principalmente no que diz respeito às espécies frágeis que não resistem aos métodos de dragagem. / In Brazil, macroalgae have been reported from the intertidal to about 120 meters depth on the continental shelf. The aim of this study was to characterize the marine benthic flora in banks of rhodoliths between 20-30 meters depth, in the subtidal zone of southern Espirito Santo state. The methods utilized in this project included a careful collection of material through SCUBA diving, which preserves the more fragile material in contrast to the use of dredging. Studies on the sublittoral flora of the state of Espirito Santo are very scarce. This flora has been studied mainly through material casted ashore on the beaches and through some material from dredging and diving. This study seeks to contribute to the inventory of the Brazilian marine algae flora and also contribute to the knowledge of the biodiversity of the algae, focusing on sublittoral flora, by a systematic study, through descriptions and illustrations of the most important characteristics of sampled species. This research resulted in the identification of 138 taxons of marine algae being 77,5% (107 taxons) Rhodophyta, 11,6% (16 taxons) Chlorophyta and 10,9% (15 taxons) Phaeophyceae. It was also observed that macroalgae species richness decreases sharply during winter season, in comparison to summer period. This reduction in species richness could be attributed to the instability generated in the rhodoliths banks during winter, by the increasing of storm conditions. In this work we recorded two new genera for the tropical Western Atlantic, Tsengia K. C.Fan & Y.P. Fan (Halymeniales/Rhodophyta) and Pugetia Kylin (Gigartinales/Rhodophyta), and two new records for the Brazilian marine flora: Erythrocladia endophloea M.A. Howe and a species of Pseudobryopsis Berthold not yet identified. Sixteen new occurences were also registered for the state of Espírito Santo: Acrochaetium liagorae Børgesen, Anotrichium yagii (Okamura) Baldock, Caulerpa brachypus Harvey, Ceramium affine Setchell & N.L.Gardner, Chondria dasyphylla (Woodward) C. Agardh, Dasya caraibica M.A. Howe, Dasya rigidula (Kützing) Ardissone, Derbesia vaucheriaeformis (Harvey) J. Agardh, Erythrocladia pinnata W.R. Taylor, Gracilaria blodgettii Harvey, Griffithsia globulifera Harvey ex Kützing, Nitophyllum cf. punctatum(Stackhouse) Greville, Rhipiliopsis stri (S. Earle & J.R. Young) Farghaly & Denizot, Streblonema invisibile Hoyt, Udotea unistratea D.S. Littler & M.M. Littler and Yuzurua poiteaui (J.V. Lamouroux) Martin-Lescanne var. gemmifera (Harvey) Sentíes, M.T. Fujii & Díaz-Larrea. There were provided informations about reproductive structures and stages of postfertilization from Platoma cyclocolpum (Montagne) F. Schmitz, Platoma sp. and Dudresnaya sp., species that occur rarely in Brazilian coast. These new additions to the flora indicate the importance of conducting research in less studied areas of the Brazilian coast. The subtidal zone still represents a gap in the knowledge of the algae and other marine organisms. Studies using SCUBA diving often yields new references especially regarding fragile species that can not resist to the dredging method.

A methodology for the thermodynamic-kinetic evaluation of circulating systems as TSA carbon capture processes is developed and used in the assessment of a novel CFB configuration against a benchmark (co-current riser). The novel CFB features a counter-current adsorber, a counter-current regenerator and a riser, the latter element playing a double role of solids conveyer and co-current adsorber. The advantages sought by using a counter-current adsorber are not only the more efficient gas-solid contact mode with respect co-current, but also a low pressure drop derived from operation at lower gas velocities and hydrostatic head partially supported on the contactor internals. Knowledge of the adsorption equilibrium alone is sufficient to realise the much higher sorbent circulation rates required by co-current configurations –compared to counter-current– to meet the stringent carbon capture specifications of 90% recovery and 95% purity. Higher solids circulation rates imply higher energy requirements for regeneration, and therefore research and development of co-current gas-solid contactors cannot be justified in terms of searching for energy-efficient post-combustion carbon capture processes. Parallel experimental investigation in the operation and fluid dynamics of cold model CFB rigs is carried out with the purposes of: 1) providing information that may impact the process performance and can be fed into the mathematical model used in the theoretical assessment for more realistic evaluation, and 2) determine gas and solids residence time distributions (RTDs), which are used for the estimation of axial dispersion and comparison with published results in similar systems. Gas RTD data is generated using a tracer pulse injection-detection technique, whereas RTD for the solid phase is studied using positron emission particle tracking (PEPT). The PEPT technique proved to be adequate for the identification of flow regimes in the novel design of the counter-current adsorber, featuring inclined orifice trays. At low gas velocities the particles flow straight down through the tray holes, whereas at higher velocities the particles flow down in zig-zag, increasing the residence time of the particles and reducing the particle axial dispersion, both beneficial in terms of separation efficiency.

Many studies measuring the occurrence of pharmaceuticals, understanding their environmental fate and the risk they pose to surface water resources have been published. However, very little is known about the relevant transformation products which result from the wide range of biotic and abiotic degradation processes that these compounds undergo in sewers, storage tanks, during engineered treatment and in the environment. Thus, the present study primarily investigated the degradation of the steroid progesterone (P4) in natural systems (rivers), with a focus on the identification and characterisation of transformation products. Initial work focussed on assessing the removal of selected compounds (Diclofenac, Fluoxetine, Propranolol and P4) from reed beds, with identification of transformation products in a field site being attempted. However, it was determined that concentrations of parent compounds and products would be too low to work with in the field, and a laboratory study was designed which focussed on P4. Focus on P4 was based on literature evidence of its rapid biodegradability relative to the other model compounds and its usage patterns globally. River water sampling for the laboratory-based degradation study was carried out at 1 km downstream of four south east England sewage works (Blackbirds, Chesham, High Wycombe and Maple Lodge) effluent discharge points. Suspected P4 transformation products were initially identified from predictions by the EAWAG Biocatalysis Biodegradation Database (EAWAG BBD) and from a literature review. At a later stage of the present work, a replacement model for EAWAG BBD (enviPath) which became available, was used to predict P4 degradation and results were compared. Samples were analysed using low resolution and accurate-mass time-of-flight mass spectrometers. Three degradation studies were conducted. Sampling for all studies was carried out at the same time in the year to minimize temporal variability in conditions and allow for effective comparison of results. Androgenic and progesterone yeast screens were carried out to assess the biological activity of transformation products.

Fluidized beds have been applied in many industrial processes (e.g. coal combustion, gasification and granulation) as an effective means for providing excellent gas and solids contact and mixing, as well as good heat transfer. Although research on the fluidized bed has been carried out for more than 70 years, uncertainties and difficulties still remain. These challenges exist primarily due to the complex and dynamic flow structure within fluidized beds and the lack of reliable measurement techniques. The positron emission particle tracking (PEPT) technique, developed at the University of Birmingham, enables individual particles to be tracked non-invasively in opaque three-dimensional (3-D) fluidized beds and offers favourable temporal and spatial resolutions. PEPT is considered to be a powerful tool for fluidized bed studies and was utilized in the current study to investigate the dynamic behaviour of solid and gas in fluidized beds. The experiments in this study were conducted in a 150-mm inner diameter (I.D.) column and operated in the bubbling fluidization regime at ambient conditions. The effects of various factors on the solid flow structure were examined: solid properties, superficial gas velocity, bed height-to-diameter aspect ratio (H/D) and pore size of the air distributor. The solid flow structure was classified into four patterns, namely patterns A, B, C and D, in which pattern C was newly observed in this thesis. The solid motion, bubble behaviour (i.e., bubble spatial distribution, bubble size and bubble rise velocity) and solid mixing were assessed for each flow pattern to understand their unique fluidization behaviours. This assessment was achieved by the development of three methods: a method to reconstruct bubble behaviours based on solid motion, and two methods for estimating the solid mixing profile in this thesis. The results were discussed and compared with the published literature. The bubble rise velocity and bubble size calculated in this research from the PEPT-measured data was in agreement with other research, particularly that of Kunii and Levenspiel, Yasui and Johanson, and Mori and Wen. Finally, a parameter was developed to predict and control flow patterns based on particle kinetic energy and various factors. The outcomes of this study advance the understanding of the complicated dynamics of bubbling fluidized beds and may benefit several industries in the enhancement of fluidized bed design and control to achieve desirable qualities and efficiencies.

L’étude des Réacteurs à Lit Bouillonnant (RLB) est à l’origine de ce projet de thèse. Ce type de réacteur chimique est très étudié en génie des procédés, en raison notamment de son utilisation pour l’hydrocraquage des charges lourdes. Des phénomènes complexes ont lieu dans un RLB, ce qui rend leur design et leur optimisation difficiles. Certains des mécanismes physiques prenant place dans les RLBs sont également des champs de recherche actifs en mécanique des fluides. Par conséquent, cette étude se concentre sur des mécanismes locaux participant à l’hydrodynamique des RLBs avec des catalyseurs cylindriques. Dans un premier temps, l’impact de l’anisotropie du catalyseur sur sa chute est étudié. Nous réalisons une étude expérimentale de la chute libre d’un cylindre en fluide au repos, afin de déterminer l’effet de l’anisotropie du corps sur sa dynamique. Les paramètres d’intérêt du problème sont le nombre d’Archimède du cylindre (Ar) et son rapport d’élongation (L/d). Les expériences sont menées avec deux caméras orthogonales, et des techniques de traitement d’images avancées sont développées pour parvenir à une mesure précise de la position et de l’orientation du corps en 3D. Pour (200 < Ar < 1100, 2 < L/d < 20), les cylindres adoptent différents types de trajectoire. Les deux principaux sont la chute rectiligne, durant laquelle l’axe du cylindre reste horizontal, et un mouvement de fluttering, qui est analysé en détail. D’autres types de mouvement plus complexes sont observés et discutés. De surcroît, le sillage du cylindre est analysé et caractérisé. De nombreuses particules sont présentes dans un RLB (40% de fraction massique environ). Les interactions entre ces corps multiples ont un impact fort sur le mouvement de chacun d’entre eux, mais sont très complexes. En première approximation, nous rendons compte de la présence de multiples particules en introduisant un milieu confiné. Nous étudions expérimentalement la chute d’un seul cylindre dans une cellule confinée verticale, dans laquelle le cylindre n’est libre de se mouvoir que dans deux directions. Le rapport d’élongation du cylindre (3<L/d<40) et son rapport de densité ( c / f = 1,16, 2,70, 4,50) sont les deux paramètres d’intérêt. Le nombre d’Archimède du cylindre se trouve entre les mêmes bornes qu’en milieu non confiné, et les deux modes principaux de mouvement sont aussi la chute rectiligne et le fluttering. Cependant, pour des paramètres (Ar,L/d) comparables, il existe des différences importantes dans le déplacement du cylindre comparé au cas non confiné. Nous avons également étudié l’interaction entre un cylindre en chute libre et un nuage de bullesascendantes. Cette étude a été menée expérimentalement dans la cellule confinée utilisée pour la seconde partie de la thèse. Des cylindres de plusieurs rapports de densité ( c / f = 1,16, 2,70, 4,50) and rapports d’élongation (3<L/d<20) ont été lâchés dans un nuage de bulles de fraction volumique de gaz comprise entre 2% et 5%. Plusieurs mécanismes d’interaction entre le cylindre et les bulles ont été identifiés (contact direct, interaction avec des perturbations du fluide. . .), et leur effet a été caractérisé. Nous avons effectué une étude statistique du mouvement du cylindre dans le nuage de bulles, et nous l’avons comparée aux résultats obtenus en milieu confiné et en fluide au repos. Les rapports de densité et d’élongation du cylindre jouent tous deux un rôle important dans son mouvement au sein du nuage de bulles. Des statistiques conditionnelles nous permettent d’approfondir notre analyse du contact entre le cylindre et les bulles, ainsi que du rôle de l’orientation du cylindre. Enfin, la dispersion du mouvement du cylindre dans le nuage est caractérisée. Un des principaux effets du nuage de bulles est d’accroître, via les contacts bulle cylindre, l’orientation du cylindre jusqu’à-ce qu’il soit presque vertical, ce qui a un effet très fort sur sa cinématique en comparaison avec le fluide au repos / The origin of this PhD thesis lies in the study of Ebullated Bed Reactors (EBRs). These chemical reactors are very active research topics in chemical processes, notably thanks to their usage in heavy oil processing. Many complex phenomena take place within EBRs, and make their design and optimization difficult. In fluid mechanics, a lot of physical mechanisms present in EBRs are active fields of study (three-phase flow, fluid-body interaction...). Hence, in the present work, a study of the mechanisms participating in the hydrodynamics of an EBR with cylindrical catalysts is performed. In a first part, the impact of the catalyst anisotropy on its fall is investigated. In order to gain insight on the effect of the body anisotropy on its fall dynamics, we investigate experimentally the free fall of a solid cylinder in a fluid at rest. The sensitivity to two dimensionless parameters, the Archimedes number (Ar) and the aspect ratio of the cylinder (L/d) is examined. Experiments are conducted with two orthogonal cameras, and advanced image processing techniques are developed in order to measure the position and orientation of the cylinder in 3D. Within the range of parameters studied (200 < Ar < 1100, 2 < L/d < 20), the cylinders adopt different types of falling motion. Two main types of paths are observed, the first one is a rectilinear fall of the cylinder that keeps its axis horizontal, and the second one is a fluttering oscillatory motion. Other more complex types of motion are observed and discussed. The fluttering motion of the cylinder is analyzed in details. On top of the study of the body motion, the cylinder wake is also visualized and characterized. A large number of particles are present at the same time inside an EBRs (about 40% of the mass). Interactions between multiple objects have a strong impact on the motion of each individual particle, but are very complex. In a first approximation, we take into account the presence of numerous particles by introducing a confined medium. We study experimentally the fall of a single cylinder in a confined vertical thin-gap cell, where the cylinders are free to move in only two directions. The cylinder elongation ratio (3<L/d<40) and density ratio ( c / f = 1.16, 2.70, 4.50) are the two parameters of interest. The Archimedes number of the cylinder lies within the same range as in the unconfined medium, and the two main modes of motion of the cylinder are a rectilinear motion, and a fluttering one. However, for the same parameters (Ar,L/d), the motion of the cylinder in the confined cell is strongly different in form to that in the unconfined medium. We also studied the interaction between a freely falling cylinder and a rising swarm of bubbles. This investigation was performed experimentally, in the confined cell used in the second part. Cylinders of various density ratio ( c / f = 1.16, 2.70, 4.50) and elongation ratio (3<L/d<20) are released in a bubble swarm of gas volume fraction between 2% and 5%. The cylinder motion is greatly modified by the bubble swarm. Several mechanisms of interaction between the cylinder and the bubbles are identified (direct contact, interactions with fluid perturbations...), and their effect is characterized. We perform a statistical analysis of the cylinder motion in the swarm, and compare it to results in the confined fluid at rest. The cylinder density ratio and elongation ratio both play an important role in its motion in the bubble swarm. Conditional statistics allow us to further investigate the effect of the contact between the cylinder and a bubble, and of the cylinder orientation in the swarm. Finally, the dispersion of the cylinder motion in the swarm is characterized. A major effect of the bubble swarm is to increase, through bubble-cylinder contacts, the probability of the cylinder to be in nearly vertical orientations. This drastically changes the kinematics of the cylinder as compared to its motion in the fluid at rest

Measurements of in situ planetary thermal conductivity are typically made using long needle-like probes inserted in a planet's surface, which measure effective thermal conductivity (ETC) in radial direction (parallel to surface). The desired vertical (perpendicular to surface) ETC is assumed to be the same as the horizontal. However, ETC of particle beds in vertical and horizontal directions is known to be an anisotropic property under low compressive pressures. This study further examines the anisotropy of bed ETC under low and high compressive pressures in both vacuum and air environments. The ratio of vertical to horizontal stress, K0, is measured for the particles used in these experiments. A resistance network heat transfer model has been developed in predicting the vertical and the horizontal ETC as a function of applied compressive pressure. The model predicts vertical ETC by using only macro-contact thermal resistances for both high and low applied compressive pressure regimes. It is proposed that the vertical and horizontal ETC of particle beds under uniaxial compression is related by compressive pressures in each direction. The horizontal compressive pressure, which is perpendicular to the applied compressive pressure, can be calculated with the use of at-rest pressure coefficient and subsequently used in macro-contact thermal resistance to predict the horizontal ETC. The vertical ETC is obtained using the same model by substituting vertical compressive pressure into macro-contact thermal resistance. A two-dimensional axisymmetric finite element model in the COMSOL Multiphysics software package has been developed to simulate heat transfer coupled with structural deformation of spheres under compressive pressures in a simple cubic (SC) packing arrangement. The numerical model is used as a tool to predict the lower limit of bed ETC as well as validating thermal contact resistance used in the theoretical model. The predictions from the numerical model can be extended to particle beds with different packing arrangements.

<p>Hedesunda reningsverk är beläget i södra delen av Gävle kommun och hanterar avloppsvatten från Hedesunda samhälle och ett fåtal närbelägna byar. Antalet anslutna personer är strax över 1500. Reningsverket byggdes på 1960-talet och byggdes om i slutet av 1990-talet. Vid ombyggnaden anlades torkbäddar för avvattning av det slam som produceras vid reningsverket. Inledningsvis fungerade dessa torkbäddar bra men sedan 2005 har slammet i bäddarna inte avvattnats i önskad omfattning.</p><p> </p><p>Syftet med detta examensarbete var att utreda hur slamavvattningen i Hedesunda ska se ut i framtiden. Utgångspunkten var att den nuvarande lösningen är otillräcklig och att en förändring är nödvändig. Inledningsvis delades frågeställningen upp i två separata delar: avvattning av slammet och avsättning för avvattnat slam. Fokus låg på ekonomiska och miljömässiga aspekter av slamhantering och en sammanvägning av dessa gjordes där så var möjligt.</p><p> </p><p>Frågan om hur avvattningen bör se ut undersöktes genom att en enkät skickades ut till nio olika företag som levererar avvattningsutrustning. Dessa fick svara på 17 frågor om vilken lösning de ansåg vara bäst lämpad för reningsverket i Hedesunda. Sammanlagt samlades sex olika svar in. Utöver dessa undersöktes även alternativet att restaurera de befintliga torkbäddarna närmare. Detta skedde bland annat genom provtagning och analys av slammet i bäddarna. De olika alternativen för slamavvattning sammanställdes och jämfördes genom att varje undersökt parameter delades in i intervall som gav olika betyg. De tre alternativ som enligt denna undersökning ansågs bäst lämpade var att restaurera de befintliga bäddarna, att anlägga vassbäddar eller att installera en mindre silbandpress.</p><p> </p><p>Då slammet avvattnats återstår frågan kring hur det avvattnade slammet ska hanteras. Detta undersöktes genom att två alternativ studerades närmare. Dessa var att fortsätta med den nuvarande hanteringen som är kompostering och tillverkning av anläggningsjord eller att certifiera slammet genom REVAQ och sprida det på åkermark. Ett försök till att skatta kostnaden för de båda alternativen gjordes, bland annat genom att frågor ställdes till de kommuner/driftbolag som idag är certifierade enligt REVAQ. Kostnaden för certifiering och spridning på jordbruksmark är betydligt mycket högre än kostnaden för kompostering. Certifieringsalternativet innebär dock en större måluppfyllelse i och med att fosfor återförs till produktiv mark.   </p><p> </p><p>Resultatet av studien är ett konkret förslag på hur slamavvattning och avsättning för slam vid Hedesunda reningsverk kan skötas i framtiden. Detta förslag innebär att de nuvarande torkbäddarna restaureras och att möjligheterna att certifiera flera delar av Gästrike Vatten AB:s verksamhet utreds närmare. Att enbart certifiera slam från Hedesunda reningsverk anses ekonomiskt orimligt.</p> / <p>Hedesunda wastewater treatment plant (wwtp) is located in the southern part of Gävle municipality in Sweden. The wwtp treats wastewater from Hedesunda community and a few nearby villages. All in all there are approximately 1500 persons connected to the plant. Hedesunda wwtp was originally built in the 1960’s and was restored in the late 1990’s. At the restoration sludge drying beds were built on the site for sludge dewatering. Initially, these beds worked fine but since 2005 the dewatering result has not been satisfactory.</p><p> </p><p>The objective of this master thesis has been to investigate different alternatives for a more effective sludge handling at Hedesunda wwtp in the future. Initially the sludge handling process was divided into two different parts: sludge dewatering and management of dewatered sludge. The focus has been on economical and environmental aspects of sludge handling and where it’s been possible these factors have been weight together.</p><p> </p><p>The question of how a more effective dewatering of sludge could be achieved was answered by a questionnaire that was sent to different companies that supply dewatering equipment to the Swedish market. Altogether six answers were collected. Besides these answers the option of restoring the existing sludge drying beds was also considered. The latter was done by sampling and analyzing sludge in the existing beds, among other things. The different options for dewatering were compiled and compared in a matrix where every parameter was split up in intervals and assigned grades. Three options that received the highest total grade were considered the best options. These were: restoring the sludge drying beds, reed beds and a small belt filter press.</p><p> </p><p>The matter of how to handle the dewatered sludge was simplified to a study of only two alternatives. These were to continue the present handling or to certify the sludge according to REVAQ and use it as fertilizer. Attempts to estimate the cost for the two alternatives were made. The cost for certification is higher than the cost for composting, but to certify the sludge will lead to a higher target achievement.</p><p> </p><p>The study resulted in concrete suggestions for how the sludge at Hedesunda wwtp can be handled in the future. This suggestion states that the existing sludge drying beds should be restored and that the possibility to certify several wwtp:s within Gästrike Vatten AB should be investigated. It is not considered economically plausible to certify sludge from Hedesunda wwtp alone.</p>

El entendimiento de los fenómenos de transferencia de calor y de masa en medios porosos implica el estudio de modelos de transporte de fluidos en la fracción vacía del medio; este hecho es de fundamental importancia en muchos sistemas de Ingeniería Química, tal como en procesos de extracción o en reactores catalíticos. Los estudios de flujo realizados hasta ahora (teóricos y experimentales) usualmente tratan al medio poroso como un medio efectivo y homogéneo, y toman como válidas las propiedades medias del fluido. Este tipo de aproximación no tiene en cuenta la complejidad del flujo a través del espacio vacío del medio poroso, reduciendo la descripción del problema a promedios macroscópicos y propiedades efectivas. Sin embargo, estos detalles de los procesos locales de flujo pueden llegar a ser factores importantes que influencien el comportamiento de un proceso físico determinado que ocurre dentro del sistema, y son cruciales para entender el mecanismo detallado de, por ejemplo, fenómenos como la dispersión de calor, la dispersión de masa o el transporte entre interfaces.La Dinámica de Fluidos Computacional (CFD) como herramienta de modelado numérico permite obtener una visión mas aproximada y realista de los fenómenos de flujo de fluidos y los mecanismos de transferencia de calor y masa en lechos empacados, a través de la resolución de las ecuaciones de Navier - Stokes acopladas con los balances de materia y energía y con un modelo de turbulencia si es necesario. De esta forma, esta herramienta permite obtener los valores medios y/o fluctuantes de variables como la velocidad del fluido, la temperatura o la concentración de una especie en cualquier punto de la geometría del lecho empacado.El objetivo de este proyecto es el de utilizar programas comerciales de simulación CFD para resolver el flujo de fluidos y la transferencia de calor y de masa en modelos bi/tri dimensionales de lechos empacados, desarrollando una estrategia de modelado aplicable al diseño de equipos para procesos de extracción o de reacción catalítica. Como referencia se tomaran procesos de tecnología supercrítica debido a la complejidad de los fenómenos de transporte involucrados en estas condiciones, así como a la disponibilidad de datos experimentales obtenidos previamente en nuestro grupo de investigación. Estos datos experimentales se utilizan como herramienta de validación de los modelos numéricos generados, y de las estrategias de simulación adoptadas y realizadas durante el desarrollo de este proyecto. / An understanding of the heat and mass transfer phenomena in a porous media implies the study of the fluid transport model within the void space; this fact is of fundamental importance to many chemical engineering systems such as packed bed extraction or catalytic reaction equipment. Experimental and theoretical studies of flow through such systems often treat the porous medium as an effectively homogeneous system and concentrate on the bulk properties of the flow. Such an approach neglects completely the complexities of the flow within the void space of the porous medium, reducing the description of the problem to macroscopic average or effective quantities. The details of this local flow process may, however, be the most important factor influencing the behavior of a given physical process occurring within the system, and are crucial to understanding the detailed mechanisms of, for example, heat and mass dispersion and interface transport.Computational Fluid Dynamics as a simulation tool allows obtaining a more approached view of the fluid flow and heat and mass transfer mechanisms in fixed bed equipment, through the resolution of 3D Reynolds averaged transport equations, together with a turbulence model when needed. In this way, this tool permit to obtain mean and fluctuating flow and temperature values in any point of the bed. The goal of this project is to use commercial available CFD codes for solving fluid flow and heat and mass transfer phenomena in two and three dimensional models of packed beds, developing a modeling strategy applicable to the design of packed bed chemical reaction and extraction equipment. Supercritical extraction and supercritical catalytic reaction processes will be taken as reference processes due to the complexity of the transport phenomena involved within this processes, and to the availability of experimental data in this field, obtained in the supercritical fluids research group of this university. The experimental data priory obtained by our research group will be used as validation data for the numerical models and strategies dopted and followed during the developing of the project.

Hedesunda reningsverk är beläget i södra delen av Gävle kommun och hanterar avloppsvatten från Hedesunda samhälle och ett fåtal närbelägna byar. Antalet anslutna personer är strax över 1500. Reningsverket byggdes på 1960-talet och byggdes om i slutet av 1990-talet. Vid ombyggnaden anlades torkbäddar för avvattning av det slam som produceras vid reningsverket. Inledningsvis fungerade dessa torkbäddar bra men sedan 2005 har slammet i bäddarna inte avvattnats i önskad omfattning.   Syftet med detta examensarbete var att utreda hur slamavvattningen i Hedesunda ska se ut i framtiden. Utgångspunkten var att den nuvarande lösningen är otillräcklig och att en förändring är nödvändig. Inledningsvis delades frågeställningen upp i två separata delar: avvattning av slammet och avsättning för avvattnat slam. Fokus låg på ekonomiska och miljömässiga aspekter av slamhantering och en sammanvägning av dessa gjordes där så var möjligt.   Frågan om hur avvattningen bör se ut undersöktes genom att en enkät skickades ut till nio olika företag som levererar avvattningsutrustning. Dessa fick svara på 17 frågor om vilken lösning de ansåg vara bäst lämpad för reningsverket i Hedesunda. Sammanlagt samlades sex olika svar in. Utöver dessa undersöktes även alternativet att restaurera de befintliga torkbäddarna närmare. Detta skedde bland annat genom provtagning och analys av slammet i bäddarna. De olika alternativen för slamavvattning sammanställdes och jämfördes genom att varje undersökt parameter delades in i intervall som gav olika betyg. De tre alternativ som enligt denna undersökning ansågs bäst lämpade var att restaurera de befintliga bäddarna, att anlägga vassbäddar eller att installera en mindre silbandpress.   Då slammet avvattnats återstår frågan kring hur det avvattnade slammet ska hanteras. Detta undersöktes genom att två alternativ studerades närmare. Dessa var att fortsätta med den nuvarande hanteringen som är kompostering och tillverkning av anläggningsjord eller att certifiera slammet genom REVAQ och sprida det på åkermark. Ett försök till att skatta kostnaden för de båda alternativen gjordes, bland annat genom att frågor ställdes till de kommuner/driftbolag som idag är certifierade enligt REVAQ. Kostnaden för certifiering och spridning på jordbruksmark är betydligt mycket högre än kostnaden för kompostering. Certifieringsalternativet innebär dock en större måluppfyllelse i och med att fosfor återförs till produktiv mark.      Resultatet av studien är ett konkret förslag på hur slamavvattning och avsättning för slam vid Hedesunda reningsverk kan skötas i framtiden. Detta förslag innebär att de nuvarande torkbäddarna restaureras och att möjligheterna att certifiera flera delar av Gästrike Vatten AB:s verksamhet utreds närmare. Att enbart certifiera slam från Hedesunda reningsverk anses ekonomiskt orimligt. / Hedesunda wastewater treatment plant (wwtp) is located in the southern part of Gävle municipality in Sweden. The wwtp treats wastewater from Hedesunda community and a few nearby villages. All in all there are approximately 1500 persons connected to the plant. Hedesunda wwtp was originally built in the 1960’s and was restored in the late 1990’s. At the restoration sludge drying beds were built on the site for sludge dewatering. Initially, these beds worked fine but since 2005 the dewatering result has not been satisfactory.   The objective of this master thesis has been to investigate different alternatives for a more effective sludge handling at Hedesunda wwtp in the future. Initially the sludge handling process was divided into two different parts: sludge dewatering and management of dewatered sludge. The focus has been on economical and environmental aspects of sludge handling and where it’s been possible these factors have been weight together.   The question of how a more effective dewatering of sludge could be achieved was answered by a questionnaire that was sent to different companies that supply dewatering equipment to the Swedish market. Altogether six answers were collected. Besides these answers the option of restoring the existing sludge drying beds was also considered. The latter was done by sampling and analyzing sludge in the existing beds, among other things. The different options for dewatering were compiled and compared in a matrix where every parameter was split up in intervals and assigned grades. Three options that received the highest total grade were considered the best options. These were: restoring the sludge drying beds, reed beds and a small belt filter press.   The matter of how to handle the dewatered sludge was simplified to a study of only two alternatives. These were to continue the present handling or to certify the sludge according to REVAQ and use it as fertilizer. Attempts to estimate the cost for the two alternatives were made. The cost for certification is higher than the cost for composting, but to certify the sludge will lead to a higher target achievement.   The study resulted in concrete suggestions for how the sludge at Hedesunda wwtp can be handled in the future. This suggestion states that the existing sludge drying beds should be restored and that the possibility to certify several wwtp:s within Gästrike Vatten AB should be investigated. It is not considered economically plausible to certify sludge from Hedesunda wwtp alone.

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