Construction and maintenance can have huge implications on the long-term functioning of GSI facilities. GSI facilities investigated were bioretention, permeable pavement, sand filters, infiltration trenches, and vegetated swales. This study first highlights the most important construction and maintenance items based on relevant studies and state stormwater manuals. Fairfax County, VA was used as a case study to evaluate the County's current stormwater program and illuminate common maintenance issues found for each GSI type. Data analysis of 3141 inspection records illustrated particular deficiencies for each GSI type and that there are differences between public and private facilities, most likely depending on site conditions and frequency of routine maintenance. Sediment accumulation was found to be the most common maintenance issue (27.8% of inspections), supporting the importance of adequate pretreatment and good housekeeping when implementing GSI. The Northern Virginia Soil and Water Conservation District (NVSWCD) performed a study surveying 63 public bioretention facilities in which they measured ponding depth, filter media depth, ponding area, and infiltration rates. The NVSWCD concluded that deficiencies found in facilities could mostly be attributed to inadequacies during construction. By comparing current post-construction inspections performed by the County to the NVSWCD data, it was found that these County inspections are failing to detect these inadequacies in bioretention facilities from improper construction. It is recommended that MS4s thoroughly record and track construction and post-construction inspection items to improve the longevity of its facilities and better inform future decision making regarding GSI. / Master of Science / Studies have shown that the proper construction and maintenance of green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) is a critical factor concerning its long-term performance; however, little research has been conducted on the necessary protocols and frequency to ensure its longevity. Many MS4s and stormwater managers are implementing these facilities without providing the adequate institutional framework to ensure the proper construction and maintenance. This study concentrates on illuminating the construction and maintenance factors critical for the performance of GSI. Facility types investigated were bioretention, permeable pavement, sand filters, infiltration trenches, and vegetated swales. The effects of local site-conditions and level of routine maintenance on frequency of facility deficiencies was quantified using 3141 records of maintenance and inspection data from Fairfax County, VA. Sediment and debris accumulation were found to be the most common deficiency highlighting the importance of good housekeeping and pretreatment devices. The Northern Virginia Soil and Water Conservation District (NVSWCD) performed a comprehensive review of 63 bioretention facilities in which they inspected elements considered critical to pollutant removal performance including ponding depth, filter media depth, and infiltration rates. By comparing the findings from the NVSWCD to current post-construction inspections performed by the County, it was found that current inspection protocols are missing important design components of bioretention facilities. This study also highlights the importance of thorough and thoughtful databases to track and record inspection and maintenance data surrounding GSI. The proper construction and maintenance of GSI is ultimately dependent on a multitude of factors including site-conditions, facility design specifications, and institutional support.

A study was conducted in two sites: one at an electricity storage facility belonging to the Swaziland Electricity Board (SEB) and the other at a facility that belongs to its treated pole supplier, the Thonkwane wood creosote treatment plant. The drainage system of these sites leads to surface waters in rivers. This is a cause of concern since creosote contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are listed as priority pollutants by the US Environmental Protection Agency. They have toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects and as a result they pose a threat to human life and the environment. No previous studies have been done on PAHs in Swaziland. The main objective of this study was to determine the impact of the SEB storage facility and the creosote treatment plant by investigating the extent of PAHs in surrounding environments (soil, sediments and surface waters). Preliminary studies were undertaken on the storage facility and the creosote treatment plant. No PAHs were detected from the pole storage facility; therefore the creosote wood treatment facility was selected as the ideal site at which to conduct the research. Soil samples were collected from depths 15 cm and 60 cm at points around the creosote plant, including effluent discharge points. The samples were extracted by solid-phase micro extraction (SPME) and analysed by GC/MS. The GC/MS, incorporating a solid phase micro extraction step, provided detection limits ranging from 0.12 μg/g to 20.08 μg/g. The pollution patterns in the study site were assessed using cluster analysis and principal component analysis. Most of the 16 US EPA-listed priority pollutants were detected from the creosote wood treatment facility. PAHs such as anthracene, fluorene, naphthalene and fluoranthene were dominant in all the sampling sites. The compounds occurred in very high concentrations (0.64, 0.46, 0.27 and 0.26 mg/kg respectively). These compounds are found in pure creosote as determined in the sample taken from the Thonkwane creosote tank site. The highest concentration of PAHs was observed in the soil samples taken next to the road site. The concentrations of the identified PAHs were above the acceptable minimal level allowed in soil by the US EPA and Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA). The levels of the PAHs are also above the recommended US EPA limit in soil, which is 0.1 mg/kg. The results indicated that significant soil pollution was taking place in some of the sampling sites. The top layer (0, 15 cm) contained many PAHs at high levels whilst the 60 cm layer had a lower number of PAHs which were also in low concentrations. This provided an indication that there is no downward movement of PAHs from the surface layer to underground layers. The potential exists for contamination of surface waters when there is runoff from the project area. This is a cause of concern, since both the creosote treatment plant and areas outside the facility are contaminated. Therefore, the site has to be cleaned up, preferably by using a phytoremediation technique. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

Sustainable Built Environments Senior Capstone Project / During Tucson rainstorms, many roads and neighborhoods experience high levels of flooding on the city’s street networks. This phenomenon creates unsafe road conditions, damage to the road infrastructure, and excessive urban stormwater runoff that is potentially polluted. The vast quantities of impervious surfaces in the urban landscape impede the rainwater’s ability to infiltrate the ground, thus resulting in increased volumes of runoff during a rainstorm. Stormwater management is used by municipalities and communities to address the previously mentioned adverse impacts of stormwater runoff. Various techniques and strategies used in stormwater management include, low impact development (LID), green infrastructure, and better site design (BSD) strategies implemented during design stages to reduce stormwater runoff levels. In addition, local governments can establish stormwater utilities and policies in order to help address and better manage the issue of stormwater runoff within urban areas. The primary research questions of this study will include: What are the most effective best management practices and techniques to address urban runoff? What combination of best management practices and government policies will be the more effective in addressing Tucson’s urban runoff problem? Accordingly, this study will examine a variety of policies and techniques to address stormwater runoff, and then, based on this information, provide a suggestion of the best practices and techniques that may be feasible for implementation in Tucson.

Sustainable Built Environments Senior Capstone Project / During Tucson rainstorms, many roads and neighborhoods experience high levels of flooding on the city’s street networks. This phenomenon creates unsafe road conditions, damage to the road infrastructure, and excessive urban stormwater runoff that is potentially polluted. The vast quantities of impervious surfaces in the urban landscape impede the rainwater’s ability to infiltrate the ground, thus resulting in increased volumes of runoff during a rainstorm. Stormwater management is used by municipalities and communities to address the previously mentioned adverse impacts of stormwater runoff. Various techniques and strategies used in stormwater management include, low impact development (LID), green infrastructure, and better site design (BSD) strategies implemented during design stages to reduce stormwater runoff levels. In addition, local governments can establish stormwater utilities and policies in order to help address and better manage the issue of stormwater runoff within urban areas. The primary research questions of this study will include: What are the most effective best management practices and techniques to address urban runoff? What combination of best management practices and government policies will be the more effective in addressing Tucson’s urban runoff problem? Accordingly, this study will examine a variety of policies and techniques to address stormwater runoff, and then, based on this information, provide a suggestion of the best practices and techniques that may be feasible for implementation in Tucson.

Headwater stream systems are important components of the overall hydrologic system. Forestry best management practices (BMP) are effective at minimizing non point source pollution from forest harvesting activities. Streamside management zones (SMZ) are one BMP used to protect surface water quality by maintaining shade near streams, filtering runoff, and minimizing soil disturbance near streams. An evaluation of BMP effectiveness on the watershed scale was conducted at the University of Kentucky’s Robinson Forest. Six watersheds were harvested using a two-age deferment harvest with one of three SMZ configurations applied to each watershed. Two unharvested watersheds served as controls. Treatment 1 was based on the current Kentucky Forest Practice Guidelines for Water Quality Management and included a 16.8 m SMZ with 50% canopy retention for perennial streams, a 7.6 m SMZ with no canopy retention for intermittent streams, and no SMZ or canopy retention for ephemeral streams with unimproved crossings. Treatment 2 also included a 16.8 m perennial SMZ but increased canopy retention to 100%, as well as a 7.6 m intermittent SMZ with 25% canopy retention, and retention of channel bank trees and use of improved crossings for ephemeral streams. Treatment 3 required a 33.5 m perennial SMZ with 100% canopy retention, a 16.8 intermittent SMZ with 25% canopy retention, and a 7.6 m ephemeral SMZ with retention of channel bank trees and use of improved crossings. Total suspended solids (TSS) concentration and turbidity was measured in storm samples in perennial and ephemeral streams, and in non-storm samples in perennial and intermittent streams. Nitrate-N, ammonium-N, and dissolved oxygen concentrations were also measured in non-storm samples in perennial and intermittent streams. Temperature and water level were recorded every 15 minutes for the duration of the study. Results showed that treatment 3 was able to maintain TSS concentrations and turbidity levels similar to those measured in unharvested control watersheds. Increases in nitrate-N and mean daily temperature were measured for all treatments. Ammonium-N and dissolved oxygen concentrations were not different from unharvested control watersheds for any treatment. Storm hydrograph separation did not result in consistent changes post-harvest for any treatment.

Farmyard runoff, i.e. the effluent generated by the rain falling over farmyards, tracks and roofs, is a significant and overlooked source of nutrients and pathogens which degrades aquatic ecosystems through eutrophication, siltation and wildlife poisoning, raises public health concerns, and incurs considerable costs for society. Among other Best Management Practices implemented to address agricultural water pollution and help achieve compliance with the Water Framework Directive, Constructed Farm Wetlands (CFWs), i.e. shallow surface flow wetlands comprising several vegetated cells in series, are being recommended for remediation of farmyard runoff, due to their capacity to remove or store pollutants. Investigation is therefore needed of their long-term water treatment efficiency and ecological value to optimize their design and cost-effectiveness and minimize their negative externalities. The main aims of this study were to: 1) evaluate the treatment performance of CFWs and the link between design, hydrology and efficiency; 2) assess their ecological value and the influence of water quality and design on wetland ecology; 3) identify their costs, benefits and the way they are perceived by farmers; and 4) inform guidelines for the design, construction and aftercare of sustainable CFWs. Research focused on two CFWs in south-east Scotland, one at a dairy farm and one at a mixed beef-arable farm, which receive runoff from yards and roofs, field drainage and septic tank overflow. From February 2006 to June 2008, rainfall, evaporation, water levels and flow at the CFWs were monitored, and their treatment efficiency was assessed from water samples collected manually regularly or with automatic samplers during storm events, and analysed using standard methods. In addition, their ecological value was assessed twice a year from vegetation and aquatic macroinvertebrate surveys. Finally, semi-structured interviews with eight farmers and a farm advisor and discussions with three CFW designers in Scotland and Ireland allowed collection of technical and economic data on farm practices, CFW construction and maintenance, and helped assess CFW cost-effectiveness and acceptance by farmers. Both CFWs reduced pollutant concentrations between inlet and outlet, with efficiencies at CFW1 and CFW2 respectively of 87% and < 0% for five-day biochemical oxygen demand, 86% and 83% for suspended solids, 68% and 26% for nitrate/nitrite, 42% and 34% for ammonium, and 12% and 31% for reactive phosphorus. Nevertheless, the concentration of all pollutants at the outlet of CFW1, and concentration of nitrate/nitrite at the outlet of CFW2 frequently exceeded river water quality standards. Water treatment efficiency varied seasonally, being significantly lower in winter, mainly due to lower temperatures, increased volume of inputs and reduced residence time. The ecological value of the two CFWs differed greatly. At CFW1 and CFW2 respectively, 14 and 22 wetland plant species and 24 and 46 aquatic macroinvertebrate species (belonging to 13 and 27 BMWP scoring families respectively) were recorded, illustrating the greater biodiversity conservation value of CFW2, which was one year older, larger, cleaner, comprised several ponds with a combination of open water and densely vegetated areas, and was subsequently more structurally diverse. The socio-economic study revealed that, despite significant costs associated with their construction (£20 000-£50 000 ha-1) and maintenance (£900-£1500 ha-1 yr-1), CFWs may still represent a more cost-effective alternative than conventional methods. However, their adoption, implementation and sustainable use by farmers were conditioned by land availability and suitability, existing farm infrastructure, detailed information on limitations and maintenance requirements, and adequate financial support for both construction and aftercare. To ensure a long-term, consistent and efficient water treatment, and to enhance biodiversity and landscape, well-maintained, large, vegetated, multi-cell CFWs with shallow overflows are recommended. Their size should be adapted to local precipitation patterns and catchment characteristics. Keywords: agriculture, best management practice (BMP), biodiversity, constructed farm wetland (CFW), costs, farmyard runoff, water pollution, water treatment.

Changing weather patterns, the declining social fabric of rural communities, and economic uncertainty increasingly pose challenges to Vermont communities. The socially and environmentally embedded production practices within sustainable agriculture present a potential solution to these problems. In order to make the most of the potential benefits of these practices society must maximize their adoption. This requires an understanding of both farmer adoption of these practices and consumer perceptions of the resulting food products. This thesis contributes two original articles on sustainable agriculture through the analysis of factors driving both farmer adoption and consumer perceptions of products and practices often thought of as sustainable. The first article seeks to understand farmer adoption of climate change best management practices (CCBMPs). Farmer perceptions of risk and profitability of best management practices (BMPs) are key determinants of adoption, which traditional incentive programs like the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) attempt to address by providing financial and technical support. To ensure appropriate price points are offered through these programs, regional price structures must be based upon locally established costs. Thus, this article focuses on the economic cost of implementing and maintaining CCBMPs for twelve diverse farms in Vermont. Specifically, three CCBMPs for Vermont are examined: cover cropping, management intensive rotational grazing (MIRG), and riparian buffer strips. Results of a yearlong farmer based data collection process indicate that the average cost for cover cropping is $129.24/acre, for MIRG is $79.82/acre, and for a tree based riparian buffer strip is $807.33/acre. We conclude that existing incentive payments for cover cropping and MIRG are below costs, likely resulting in under-adoption. The second article reports on a study which seeks to understand the factors influencing Vermont consumer perceptions of raw milk safety. While this article makes no assertion regarding the sustainability of raw milk, an association is established between the motivations for raw milk consumption and sustainable agriculture support. Vermonterâ??s appear to be continuing the trend of consuming raw milk at an increasing rate despite continued declarations from local and national public health officials that raw milk is too microbiologically dangerous to justify its consumption. Thus this study was designed to increase understanding of the factors driving consumer perceptions of raw milk safety. A conceptual model was developed to establish potential factors and related questions were incorporated into the 2014 Vermonter Poll. Resulting data were analyzed using a Probit regression analysis. We conclude that observable factors have the greatest influence on perceptions of raw milk safety. Specifically, perceived health benefits, presence of children in the household, and taste all influence perceptions of raw milk safety.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Timothy Keane / Kansas City’s outdated sewer system is presently incapable of capturing and treating the increased runoff volumes in Turkey Creek Basin during rainstorm events. As a result, 2.66 billion gallons of untreated sewer system overflow is released annually into the Kansas River and nearby properties. In 2002, the Environmental Protection Agency issued a civil action requiring the City of Kansas City, Missouri, to take appropriate and necessary actions needed to prevent or minimize the discharge of untreated sewage. In response, the City of Kansas City adopted a comprehensive Overflow Control Plan intended to reduce sewer system overflow volumes in Turkey Creek Basin by 85% at a cost of approximately $244 million. Initially, the City of Kansas City seriously considered implementing stormwater best management practices (BMPs) in place of sewer system improvements. Stormwater BMPs infiltrate, filter, store, and evaporate stormwater runoff close to its source, preventing stormwater runoff from reaching the sewer system. Subsequently, many BMPs were eliminated from the Overflow Control Plan and replaced with conventional sewer system technologies because of performance concerns. However, the Overflow Control Plan acknowledged that BMPs located on private property would indirectly benefit Kansas City’s stormwater management strategy. Using geographic information system (GIS) analysis, suitability maps were generated for twelve different BMPs to determine suitable locations in Turkey Creek Basin for reducing stormwater runoff. Analysis concluded that the most effective strategy for sustainable stormwater management would be to locate BMPs at higher elevations within the watershed to prevent upland runoff from flooding sewer system pipes at lower elevations. Areas having the highest suitability are located primarily on residential land, implying that Kansas City could benefit most from encouraging its residents to equip their properties with site-appropriate BMPs. This can be achieved through educational initiatives, policy adoption, and homeowner incentives. Therefore, policies and incentives targeting Kansas City’s residents should be implemented to reduce sewer overflow volumes and prevent future costly improvements to Kansas City’s sewer system.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Timothy Keane / Wildcat Creek watershed in Riley County, Kansas has been scene to increasingly severe and damaging flooding in recent years. Significant flood events in the summer of 2010 and 2011 have prompted the community to action. One of many areas of concern is addressed by this project in order to facilitate community efforts to reduce future flooding. Residential stormwater best management practices (BMPs) implemented by property owners to reduce the amount of stormwater runoff entering the Wildcat Creek watershed is the focus of this project. An analysis of the residential development typology in the City of Manhattan within the Wildcat Creek watershed guides stormwater BMP implementation strategies. GIS identified residential development types based on land use, land cover, and parcel size. Single family residential and high density multi-family developments are the areas of focus. Rational method stormwater calculations were conducted on one sample site selected from each of four areas identified as unique within the residential context. The four sample sites include large lot single family, small lot single family, traditional single family, and high density multi-family. The current stormwater runoff situation was constructed for residential areas of Manhattan within the Wildcat Creek watershed using these samples. Sample sites were evaluated four times. Existing stormwater runoff amounts for each site were determined. A minimal BMP treatment in the form of rain gardens was applied. Then a moderate BMP treatment including rain gardens, rain barrels, and native plantings was applied. The fourth evaluation was on a high level of rainwater BMP treatment including rain gardens, rain barrels, cisterns, native vegetation, bioretention, and permeable paving. Post-BMP runoff calculations were performed. The resulting data was compared to the pre-BMP stormwater data to determine the impact of varying degrees of BMP treatments. This work produced a series of BMP strategies specifically suited to the Wildcat Creek watershed. These site specific strategies are a valuable resource for community members to help reduce flooding in the watershed. The resulting calculations are also valuable tools for community leaders determining the value of stormwater regulations that may require or promote stormwater BMPs in Manhattan.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Timothy Keane / The City of Manhattan, Kansas is looking for possible solutions to mitigate flooding along Wildcat Creek within the Wildcat Creek Watershed. Recent flooding has caused substantial property damage. The project presented here brings recreation into the community by designing a golf course in a location along Wildcat Creek that addresses flooding issues, increases infiltration, and improves water quality. The golf industry has a long way to go to become more sustainable. The world is facing many challenges related to water and hydrology. Much of the opposition towards the golf industry is because critics see it as environmentally unfriendly. Golf has the potential to become a catalyst for change in the way we design and develop the landscape around us. The golf industry can become a leader in sustainable design while taking on hydrological concerns within the community. This project demonstrates the application of a golf course to help mitigate flooding along Wildcat Creek with the use of vulnerability and suitability analysis as a guide to site selection. This method of analysis illustrates the process of identifying and protecting areas vulnerable to degradation by designing a golf course in a suitable location to utilize water hazards to store flood water, provide more floodplain access to effectively increase infiltration capacity, reduce runoff rates, and improve water quality. The report explains the relationship between golf course design and environmental practices as they relate to hydrology on a theoretical site in Manhattan, Kansas. By integrating golf course design theory and environmentally sound stormwater management practices, water hazards on the golf course can become the fundamental elements used in strategizing the design of the golf course. A conceptual plan was created to maximize the infiltration capacity of the site as well as allow increased floodplain access, and provide a place to store flood water. A golf course can then be properly sited and designed hydrologically around the use of water hazards to help reduce flooding and improve water quality within the watershed.