Bacterial cultivation from patient samples is the foundation of proper antibiotic treatment. A frequently used cultivation medium is agar with an additive of blood, so-called blood agar. The recommended additive of blood is horse blood while human blood is currently used as an additive at the microbiological laboratory Ryhov, Jönköping. The study aimed to evaluate horse blood in blood agar prior to a change in blood from human to horse blood according to a regulation from the European Union. The method consisted of cultivation from reference strains, clinical isolations and clinical patient samples on both blood agar with human blood and blood agar with horse blood. The comparison included a visual assessment for both blood agar based on the criteria of haemolysis, colony size and bacterial growth. In the assessment of clinical patient samples, in addition to the previously mentioned criteria, mixed flora was also assessed. The study resulted in a more distinct demonstration of haemolysis on blood agar with horse blood than on blood agar with human blood for haemolytic bacteria. An equivalence for both blood agar was presented regarding the remaining criteria. Based on these results a change can be made according to the regulation without negative impact.

Neurogenesis primarily occurs during embryonic development in decapod crustaceans, ending when the embryonic precursor cells die. However, areas in the central olfactory pathway are exceptions to this. Here, neurons are produced throughout the animal’s life from precursor cells in the neurogenic niche. Cells within the niche divide and migrate to clusters in the olfactory pathway where they eventually differentiate into neurons. The number of cells in the niche correlates with the total number of hemocytes, which have been suggested to be a source of adult-born neurons. Hemocytes are further an important part of the innate immunity since containing the compounds of the proPO-system needed for the melanization reaction. The purpose of this study was to find out whether the melanization reaction matters when it comes to neural injuries. Neural injury was induced by cutting of the first pair of antennae, where neurons are connected to the olfactory pathway. Hemocytes in the hemolymph were counted and characterized and phenoloxidase activity in the brain was measured before and after neural injury. mRNA expression was measured for prophenoloxidase, the neurogenic niche marker glutamine synthetase 2 as well as for astakine 1. Astakine 1 protein had been found in increased levels after neural injury in previous studies. Significant differences were detected for number of hemocytes in injured crayfish and for glutamine synthetase 2 and prophenoloxidase in control crayfish. However, these findings did not provide strong enough evidence to suggest that the melanization reaction plays a role after neural injury. More research is still needed, perhaps by studying the distribution of hemocytes in the brain at different times post-injury by histological sectioning.

The partnerships, or symbioses, between diatom hosts and cyanobacteria are widespread in the tropical and subtropical oceans. Many populate low nutrient waters where the heterocystous cyanobacteria fix N2 and provide reduced nitrogen (N) to the host. These types of symbioses are believed to be important in the global ocean biogeochemical cycle of N and carbon (C). The cyanobacteria morphology, cellular locations differ as well as genome size and content. The genome size and content are related to the cellular location: internal symbionts have smaller more eroded genomes, while external symbionts have larger genomes more similar to free-living cyanobacteria. Based on previously identified characteristics the aim of this report is to classify taxonomically, unidentified environmental metagenomic assembled genomes (MAGs) to the heterocystous symbionts of diatoms: Richelia and Calothrix. A select number of targeted gene sequences will be compared. MAGs and four draft genomes of Richelia and Calothrix were collected from public repositories (GTDB, NCBI and Tara project) and an initial comparison of GC-content and genome size was made. Based on this comparison, seven of the MAGs were determined as similar as the draft genomes of the known symbionts. After, a heatmap was created based on 27 targeted genes, some of which are highly conserved, to further characterize the phylogeny of the MAGs (Appendix 2). Results from the GC-content and genome size graph and the heatmap indicated similar trends which could connect one of the MAGs being most similar to the RintRC01 draft genome whereas the other five MAGs resembled the RintHH01 draft genome. Based on these results, conclusions can be drawn that the unknown MAGs are likely derived from symbionts of diatoms and could also possess similar characteristics, such as their cellular location, function and role in the N and C cycles.

Semi-natural grasslands are valuable ecosystems that have a high biodiversity. Unfortunately, a lot of this biodiversity is being lost as semi-natural grasslands are declining in both size and number. Restoration to reestablish semi-natural grasslands is often done by removing shrubs and trees and planting seeds. After this reinstalment of management such as mowing, and grazing is done to keep woody plants away. Grassland management and restoration have a proven positive effect on species richness and abundance regarding vascular plants. Yet little is known about the effects on insects and spiders. By reviewing scientific publications, I explored how insects and spiders are affected by management, as well as how local and landscape factors affect restoration. Grassland history and timing of restoration, as well as insect and spider’s dispersal ability, affects the possibility of a successful restoration. Larger habitats with good connectivity and surrounding supporting habitats are positive factors for viable insect and spider communities. By comparing different publications, some species benefit from intensive grazing and mowing, and some show a negative response. Long-term low to medium intensive management will favor a higher biodiversity compared to short-term intensive management. In conclusion, balancing conflicts and trade-offs is the real challenge when it comes to semi-natural grassland restoration. In general, to benefit as many insect and spider species as possible management should focus on variation in grass height and flower abundance. However, more research on how insect and spiders are affected by grassland restoration is something I believe would benefit future conservation projects.

Försvarsmekanismer är vanligt förekommande svar på predation och aggression bland djur. Till exempel uppvisar många terrestra sniglar en högre aktivitet och förändrat rörelsemönster när de identifierar kemiska signaler från predatorer. I denna studie undersökte jag hur kemiska signaler från en attackerad artfrände påverkade försvarsbeteenden hos trädgårdssnigel (Arion distinctus), där pantersnigel (Limax maximus) representerade aggressor. Ett laboratorieexperiment utfördes med fyra behandlingar (totalt 48 replikat): med slemspår av en trädgårdssnigel, med spår av en pantersnigel, med spår av båda arter tillsammans, samt utan spår. Jag förutspådde att spår av en attackerad artfrände (det vill säga spår från båda arter tillsammans) skulle medföra högre aktivitet och undvikande beteende hos trädgårdssnigeln, samt att båda arter under förberedelsen för behandlingarna skulle uppvisa en högre aktivitet vid närvaro av den andra arten än ensamma. Resultaten visade ingen signifikant effekt av behandling på trädgårdssniglarnas aktivitet eller rörelsemönster, eller på någon av arternas aktivitet vid närvaro av varandra. Eftersom sniglars försvarsbeteenden är kostsamma, är det möjligt att pantersnigeln inte utgjorde ett tillräckligt stort hot för att det skulle vara fördelaktigt för trädgårdssnigeln att utföra dessa beteenden. / Defence mechanisms are a common response to predation and aggression in animals. For example, many terrestrial slugs exhibit a higher activity and change their movement patterns when identifying chemical signals from predators. In this study, I examined how chemical signals from an attacked conspecific affected the defence mechanisms of the common garden slug (Arion distinctus), where the leopard slug (Limax maximus) represented the aggressor. A laboratory experiment was conducted with four treatments (48 replicas in total): with mucus trails from a common garden slug, with trails from a leopard slug, with trails from both species together, and without trails. I predicted that trails from an attacked conspecific (i.e. trails from both species together) would result in increased activity and an avoiding behaviour in the common garden slug, and that both species during the preparation for the treatments would exhibit an increased activity in presence with the other species than alone. The results showed no significant effect of treatment on the common garden slug’s activity or movement pattern, or on both species’ presence of each other. Because slugs’ defence mechanisms are costly, it is possible that the leopard slug did not pose a threat big enough to be beneficial for the common garden slug to execute these behaviours.

I denna studie undersöks högstadieelevers kunskap om och intresse av biologisk mångfaldoch naturvård. Undersökningen utfördes genom en digital enkät som skickades ut till totalt 44elever i två sjätteklasser på skolor i Halmstad kommun. En av klasserna har under 2020deltagit i projektet LIFE-Goodstream med fältexkursion där eleverna fick prova på håvningsom inventeringsmetod samt samtala om nyttan med anlagda våtmarker för biologiskmångfald. Enkäten bestod av dels slutna frågor som besvarades med ett eller flera alternativ,dels öppna frågor där eleverna gavs möjlighet till egna kommentarer. De fick också graderasin inställning till biologi som skolämne. Frågorna berörde både elevernas teoretiskakunskaper om och relation till biologisk mångfald. Eleverna som deltagit i LIFE-Goodstreamfick även kommentera sin upplevelse av det. Utifrån svaren kunde sedan slutsatser omkunskap och intresse dras. Eleverna hade generellt svårt att definiera begreppet biologiskmångfald och var osäkra på vad naturvård innebär. De flesta svarade dock att det var viktigtoch att de själva var intresserade av att få mer kunskap om naturvård. Undersökningenpåvisade inget signifikant samband mellan deltagande i fältexkursionen och intresse, däremottenderade eleverna med regelbundna fritidsaktiviteter utomhus uppskatta naturen mer ochvara mer nyfikna på vidare studier. Studien indikerar ett behov av mer utbildning med fokus på biologisk mångfald och merlättillgänglig information om enkla naturvårdande åtgärder. Nuvarande läroplan böreventuellt kompletteras mer fler praktiska moment för att sätta enskilda fakta i ettsammanhang, skapa en djupare förståelse och motivera eleverna till ytterligare inlärning såatt de själva kan verka för en hållbar framtid. / This study aims to investigate the knowledge and interest in biodiversity and conservationamong sixth graders. The inquiry was made through a digital survey that was sent out to 44pupils in total from two different schools in the muncipality of Halmstad. One of theresponding classes participated in the project LIFE-Goodstream with a field excursion,inventory of aquatic organisms by heaving and discussion about the ecological benefits ofartificial wetlands during 2020. The survey consisted partly of questions with one or severalalternatives, partly of open questions with possibility to write own answers. Additionally, thestudents were asked to grade their attitudes towards biology as a school subject. Thequestions concerned both the students’ theoretical knowledge and their relation tobiodiversity. Participants in LIFE-Goodstream did also comment on their experiences of theexcursion. From these answers, conclusions about knowledge and interest could be drawn.The students generally found it difficult to define biodiversity and were unsure of themeaning of conservation. Nevertheless, the majority consider it as important and want toknow more about conservation biology. The study shows no significant correlation betweenparticipation in the field excursion and knowledge or interest. However, the students with more regular outdoor activities tend to appreciate nature more and be more interested infurther education. The study indicates a need for more education in biodiversity and more information aboutfeasible measures for conservation. The current curriculum should possibly involve morepractical moments and put the education of single concepts in a context, which could create adeeper understanding and a motivation to learn more about how they can act forsustainability.

Significant heart and liver increase in hatching and neonates has been found evident in multiple different species such as the emu, Peking Duck, and pigs. The relative mechanism behind heart growth could be tied to closing of the ductus arteriosus, however there is still a debate whether it’s significant impact in avian species. Liver and heart mass were measured at four different transition stages before and after hatching on Red junglefowls (Gallus gallus). Heart mass was found to vary between 83-170mg, with the lowest values most often found in pre pipped chickens while higher values found more often in hatchlings. The relative heart mass was found to be significant (P<0,05) across all groups except between internally pipped and externally pipped chickens. Therefore, the results can conclude that an increase in relative heart mass was found to be directly tied to age. Liver mass was found to be significant (P<0,05) but changes in mass was found to occur only between EP and hatchling stage. Further analysis on absolute heart and liver mass showed in both cases hatchlings having a higher mean mass compared to the other three stages. Both absolute liver and heart mass was found to be statistically significant (P<0,05) which indicates there are no major differences between analysis on relative or absolute mass. These findings suggest that red junglefowls follow the same growth pattern found in other precocial birds such as emu or Peking duck.

Denna litteraturstudie tar sikte på att belysa hur proteinkonsumtion påverkar en atlets fysiska uthållighetsförmåga. För att kunna maximera sin uthållighetsprestation behöver atleter protein för att bland annat ersätta använd energi. Atleter behöver även protein för att tillgodose musklerna med essentiella aminosyror för optimal återuppbyggnad. Det resulterar i att proteinintaget delvis blir avgörande för hur kroppen svarar på träningsinsatsen. Beroende på typ av sportutövning såväl som individuella skillnader så har dock olika atleter olika nutritionella behov. Folkhälsomyndigheten följer WHO:s rekommendation gällande ett generellt dagligt proteinintag på 0,8gram per kilo kroppsvikt för vuxna. Elitidrottare rekommenderas däremot ett dagligt proteinintag på 1,4–1,8gram protein per kilo kroppsvikt. Studier som analyserar nutrition i relation till fysisk prestationsförmåga baseras främst på manliga studiedeltagare. Det har dock etablerats att det finns könsbaserade skillnader när det kommer till metabolism under uthållighetsträning. Män är mer beroende av kolhydrat- och proteinkällor under uthållighetsträning än vad kvinnor är. Detta beror sannolikt delvis på skillnader i koncentrationsnivåer av hormonet östrogen. Sammanfattningsvis visar resultaten att idrottande atleter har ett högre proteinbehov än människor som inte tränar. Ett ökat proteinintag visar sig dock inte systematiskt öka en atlets uthållighetsprestation. Däremot finns en samstämmighet kring att ett ökat proteinintag reducerar stressmarkörer vid en hög fysisk belastning. Detta tyder på att proteinmängden påverkar prestationsmöjligheten sett under en längre tid. Dessutom visar det att proteinintaget reducerar skaderisken, vilket bör vara essentiellt för atleter vars träningsmöjligheter minimeras vid skada. Därtill tyder granskade studier på att humöret efter fysisk ansträngning förbättras med ett ökat proteinintag vilket också är av intresse. Den proteinmängd som bör intas av atleter som vill maximera sin uthållighetsträning är 1,45g/kg/d för kvinnliga atleter och 1,74g/kg/d för manliga atleter. Båda värden är inom spannet som folkhälsomyndigheten rekommenderar för elitidrottare. Men det är av vikt att i framtiden belysa könsbaserade skillnader för att främja mer jämlika kunskapsförhållanden mellan kvinnliga och manliga atleter.

Excreted pharmaceuticals are leaking out into aquatic environments via effluent water where they are hypothesized to be potent enough to alter fish behavior. Central for this hypothesis is oxazepam, an anti-anxiety drug that have been shown to make fish behave more bold, more active, and less social. However, some laboratory trials have also failed to find these effects and have been poor predictors of fishes’ behavior in situ. The aims of my meta-analysis were; i) investigate the strength of oxazepam induced behavior changes in wild-caught fish, and ii) assess eventual impact of citation bias (i.e., that researcher prefer citing studies showing effects) on published literature relating to oxazepam induced behavior changes. I found, when combining existing literature on oxazepam impact on wild caught fish behavior, that exposure concentrations ranging between 0.5-100µg/L, did only change the activity (increased) of the fish. In high (>100 µg/L) concentration exposures activity and boldness increased, and sociality decreased as previously suggested. I also noticed a significant citation bias, where studies showing effects of oxazepam on behaviors were more frequently cited. Several studies report absence of behavior effects caused by oxazepam in controlled laboratory trials, despite using >1000 times higher concentrations that ever been measured in fresh water. Therefore, I find it unlikely that this drug has strong effects on fish in nature. Citation biases towards studies showing effects seems likely to have had a strong influence on the current notion that oxazepam is altering fish behavior.

Along the coast of temperate oceans brown algae of the genus Fucus form dense stands on rocky shores and are keystone species of the coastal ecosystem. These large seaweeds are perennial and function as substrate for many sessile marine organisms, provide shelter for fauna and juvenile fish, and are food source. A number of abiotic (e.g. wave-exposure, salinity and substrate) and biotic (e.g. herbivory and competition) factors structures these communities and determines the abundance and composition of fucoids at each specific site. Earlier studies have shown that herbivores may reduce growth of fucoids, thus affecting their distribution, and at high densities eliminate the species from previously occupied sites. In my thesis I focused on investigating herbivore-seaweed interactions and whether such interactions could influence the geographical range limits of Fucus species. A set of laboratory bioassays and a field survey were conducted (1) to investigate the resistance to grazing by a generalist gastropod between introduced (to Sweden) and native (Iceland) Fucus evanescens (Paper I),  (2) to study the distribution pattern of F. radicans and F. vesiculosus along the Swedish coast and specifically the southern limit of F. radicans, (3) to examine the abundance of herbivores in these two species, and (4) to test the hypothesis that Idotea baltica may contribute to restrict F. radicans to the Bothnian Sea (objective 2-4; Paper II). Fucus evanescens, a species that was introduced to the Swedish coast about 100 years ago, was found to be more resistant to grazing by L. littorea compared to F. evanescens from the native Icelandic populations.  It was also shown to contain a higher amount of phlorotannins; a putative chemical defence to herbivory. This indicates that development of resistance to herbivory could be important for a successful introduction and survival in a new range. No gradual change in the proportion, measured as % cover of either F. radicans or F. vesiculosus was found inside the range of F. radicans and its southernmost limit was abrupt without any corresponding abrupt change in any abiotic factor, e.g. salinity. Herbivores, i.e. Idotea spp., Gammarus spp. and Theodoxus fluviatils were found to be more abundant in F. radicans than in F. vesiculosus thalli indicating a habitat preference for F. radicans.  Further, Idotea baltica, whose range only overlaps with that of F. radicans in the south, was shown to prefer F. radicans over F. vesiculosus, possibly due to its lower content of phlorotannins. Based on these findings I propose that Idotea species may contribute in restricting the southern range of F. radicans, although further experiments, especially regarding competition with the larger F. vesiculosus need to be performed. In conclusion, biotic interactions e.g. the ability of to resist herbivore grazing by e.g. high phlorotannin content or having a structure less attractive as habitat to herbivores may be of importance in determining the geographic range of fucoids. / Längs kusterna i de tempererade haven bildar brunalger av släktet Fucus täta bestånd på klippiga stränder och är ofta nyckelarter i kustekosystemen. Dessa tångarter är fleråriga och utgör substrat för många fastsittande organismer, ger skydd åt små rörliga djur och fiskyngel, samt utgör föda för betare så som gastropoder, amphipoder och isopoder. Faktorer som vågexponering, bottentyp, salthalt, näringshalter, bete och konkurrens strukturerar tångsamhällen och avgör hur vanlig varje tångart är på en viss lokal. I min avhandling har jag fokuserat på interaktionen mellan betare och tång, samt hur viktig denna interaktion är för att avgöra den geografiska utbredningen av tångarter. Tidigare studier har visat att betare kan minska tillväxten hos tång och på så sätt påverka dess utbredning. I höga densiteter kan de beta ner hela bestånd av tång så att den försvinner från lokaler där de tidigare vuxit. Resistens mot bete hos Fucus evanescens, ishavstång, som är introducerad till Skagerrak, Kattegat och sydvästra Östersjön och inhemsk i norra Atlanten och norra Stilla Havet undersöktes i betesförsök (Artikel I). En betare, generalisten Littorina littorea, strandsnäcka, som är inhemsk i Sverige, dit F. evanescens har introducerats, föredrog att äta F. evanescens från Island där den är inhemsk, framför F. evanescens från Sverige. Det här skulle kunna tyda på att ett välutvecklat försvar är viktigt för att alger som blir introducerade till nya områden ska kunna etablera sig i det nya området. Jag undersökte även utbredningen av den nyligen beskrivna tångarten Fucus radicans, smaltång (Artikel II). Resistensen mot betare hos F. radicans jämfördes med resistensen mot bete hos F. vesiculosus, blåstång, som växer tillsammans med F. radicans, genom att undersöka preferensen mellan de två arterna hos Idotea baltica, tånggråsugga (Artikel II). Det fanns ingen gradient i förekomsten av F. radicans eller F. vesiculosus inom F. radicans utbredningsområde. Istället observerades en ganska abrupt gräns för utbredningen av F. radicans i söder. Eftersom I. baltica, vars utbredning överlappar F. radicans utbredning i söder, föredrog att äta F. radicans framför F. vesiculosus, skulle F. radicans utbredning kunna påverkas av I. baltica. Både I. baltica och två andra betare, Gammarus spp. och Theodoxus fluviatilis, var vanligare i F. radicans än i F. vesiculosus i plantor insamlade i fält. Det innebär att de vanligaste betarna, även i fält, föredrar att uppehålla sig i F. radicans och antagligen konsumerar mer av F. radicans. Slutsatsen från de båda studierna är att betare och tångens försvar mot bete har potentialen att påverka utbredning av olika tångarter.