A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 24 March in Johannesburg, South Africa, 2014. / The Biosphere Reserve (BR) model of UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) reflects a shift towards more socially accountable conservation, setting a basis for improving the relationships between people and their environment. The BR approach of dual ‘conservation’ and ‘sustainable development’ objectives is a long-term perspective that increases people’s ability to sustainably manage environmental resources into the future. By 2013 the MAB Programme had resulted in 621 sites designated globally since first inception in 1976, with 11 of these new listings since 2012. Yet regardless of this global spatial expansion, there are few examples of BRs successfully conforming to the MAB’s full criteria, as the reality of aligning conservation and development goals in this model has typically favoured one over the other, with examples of development objectives fuelling broad-scale landscape transformation and conservation objectives that have ignored socio-economic opportunities. However there are a number of case studies presented herein that have shown considerable success, and this thesis suggests that the potential opportunities inherent in the model may outweigh implementation challenges. This thesis critically reviews the history and evolution of the Programme internationally, and makes recommendations for the future of the MAB Programme. In the South African context, the BR model has been applied to a regional conservation landscape in the north-eastern part of the country. The Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve (K2C) is a long-established land-use mosaic of socio-economic juxtapositions, where nationally important economic sectors and world-renowned protected areas (e.g. the Kruger National Park) neighbour extensive, mostly rural, human populations engaged in informal livelihood practices. These vast settlement expanses are artefacts of the former political system in South Africa, and have been prioritised by the South African National Government for urgent socio-economic upliftment. Given that understanding the underlying land-use mosaic is essential for successful implementation of the BR model in any landscape, this thesis assessed land-cover change across the BR (1993 – 2006 – 2012), through the creation of land-cover classification maps, analysing spatial changes in cover relative to the MAB theoretical aspirations. It focuses on three consolidated land-cover cover classes: Intact Vegetation, Impacted Vegetation and Settlement, that present a graduated scale of land-use intensities across the BR, acting as surrogates for the ‘environmental’ and ‘human utilisation’ aspects of the BR approach. Results indicate that the spatial distribution of land-cover change in K2C bears little regard for the theoretical BR zonation and the relative limitations on ‘use’ that typifies successful BR implementation. The spatial expansion of Settlement cover replaced adjacent Impacted Vegetation, which in turn encroached in original areas of Intact Vegetation cover, increasingly fragmenting Intact Vegetation across K2C. The expansion of Impacted Vegetation has resulted in the spatial consolidation of communal use areas, which has likely serious implications for the long-term sustainability of current harvesting levels. Anecdotal field observations have indicated community responses to these concerns with the formal fencing of rangelands to secure ownership and control access. Losses of Intact vegetation translate spatially into an area >400km2, with observed land-cover changes occurring beyond the transition zone, encroaching into the (fully-protected) core and (partially–protected) buffer zones. The increased rate of landscape change in the recent observation period (2.3%1993-2006 versus 5.7%2006-2012) poses challenges for landscape management, with future predictions of escalating transformation likely to undermine BR sustainability, as well as options for a regionally connected protected area network. Historical landscape trends predict a further 5.1% loss of intact vegetation in the next 6 years (2012 – 2018), yet this may over-estimate the potential for transformation in this landscape. However the possibility of a similar loss over a longer temporal period, i.e. 12 years, is not improbable, with the unprotected matrix landscape of the transition zone having experienced comparable losses since 1993, i.e. 4.17%. K2C has had substantial success with pilot socio-economic projects, and has received formal international recognition for the stakeholder engagement / alignment occurring in the subregion as a result of the BR’s listing here. Given these successes, and the considerable investment in its establishment, it is likely that the BR model here will endure. The results of this thesis contribute to improving implementation success long-term, informing policy and management priorities across the BR. These include contributions to i) a marketing approach for the BR, specifically the importance of a K2C ‘brand’ for enhancing co-operation and strengthening the BR’s regional identity, as well as ii) providing support for land-use planning and decisions related to land-use practices and BR sustainability.

Natural protected areas (NPAs) are created for the protection of biodiversity and natural resources. In NPAs, diverse social constructions of nature come together, representing the specific and often contrasting values of disparate interest groups. The establishment of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico fueled social conflict between groups in the region, because its borders cut across existing ejidos (communal lands). The incongruence of policies and actions related to land management in Calakmul presents a particular case where national and international interests are imposed upon local conservation and development concerns. Communities have responded in multiple ways, often resisting new policies or programs, but at times taking advantage of new resources, perspectives, or knowledge. This study analyzes how the differing attitudes of local populations and conservation-oriented NGOs toward conservation, tourism, and towards each other affect how sustainable development activities are carried out within this unique social space.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 1999. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 319-344). Available also in a digital version from Dissertation Abstracts.

A descriptive case study approach and 34 indicators was used to examine the socio-economic impacts of whale watching tourism in the Laguna San Ignacio (LSI) World Heritage Site - located within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve in Baja California Sur, Mexico. The framework measured both the socio-economic changes, and the economic viability of the local and regional operators. This approach led to a detailed understanding of the underlying, and often complex, inter-related factors that shaped the ecotourism development in LSI between 1994 and 2002. It identified strengths and weaknesses of current ecotourism development making it a valid tool for evaluating and improving these activities in any biosphere reserve. More specifically the objectives were to examine: 1. How existing ecotourism operations and their activities in the LSI have changed since 1994; 2. Whether these changes have made ecotourism a more viable socio-economic development alternative for the local communities; and 3. Which strategies may be useful in overcoming identified barriers to further socio-economic benefits both from existing and future ecotourism activities. The results strongly suggested that the benefits from ecotourism improved significantly between 1994 and 2002. Economically this was reflected in growth of visitor numbers (50%), employment (100%) and local and regional revenue approximately 70% (or 55% in real terms adjusting for inflation). Social benefits were seen in more cooperation among previous antagonistic stakeholders; a wider distribution of ecotourism benefits; some improvement in living standards and increasing local support for the Reserve. Politically, local stakeholders became more empowered through involvement in tourism related management activities. The viability of the local and regional operators also improved significantly as they became more sophisticated in their product offerings, enhanced their facilities and gained a market share of ecotourism relative to the foreign operators. These improvements were particular true for the operators that sold package tours. However, the analyses also revealed a number of barriers with the most important ones being: • Unresolved historic land use conflicts over rights to land with ecotourism possibilities; • Lack of activities diversification possibilities outside the tourism season; • Stagnating visitor numbers; • Uneven business skills among operators; • Poor marketing and promotional efforts; • Insufficient ecotourism infrastructure; • A proposed ecotourism tax; • Low profit margin of the ecotourism operators; and • Lack of funding for further investments To alleviate these threats and barriers 13 general strategies were identified. An elaboration of these resulted in 39 concrete operational strategies on how potentially to implement them.

A descriptive case study approach and 34 indicators was used to examine the socio-economic impacts of whale watching tourism in the Laguna San Ignacio (LSI) World Heritage Site - located within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve in Baja California Sur, Mexico. The framework measured both the socio-economic changes, and the economic viability of the local and regional operators. This approach led to a detailed understanding of the underlying, and often complex, inter-related factors that shaped the ecotourism development in LSI between 1994 and 2002. It identified strengths and weaknesses of current ecotourism development making it a valid tool for evaluating and improving these activities in any biosphere reserve. More specifically the objectives were to examine: 1. How existing ecotourism operations and their activities in the LSI have changed since 1994; 2. Whether these changes have made ecotourism a more viable socio-economic development alternative for the local communities; and 3. Which strategies may be useful in overcoming identified barriers to further socio-economic benefits both from existing and future ecotourism activities. The results strongly suggested that the benefits from ecotourism improved significantly between 1994 and 2002. Economically this was reflected in growth of visitor numbers (50%), employment (100%) and local and regional revenue approximately 70% (or 55% in real terms adjusting for inflation). Social benefits were seen in more cooperation among previous antagonistic stakeholders; a wider distribution of ecotourism benefits; some improvement in living standards and increasing local support for the Reserve. Politically, local stakeholders became more empowered through involvement in tourism related management activities. The viability of the local and regional operators also improved significantly as they became more sophisticated in their product offerings, enhanced their facilities and gained a market share of ecotourism relative to the foreign operators. These improvements were particular true for the operators that sold package tours. However, the analyses also revealed a number of barriers with the most important ones being: • Unresolved historic land use conflicts over rights to land with ecotourism possibilities; • Lack of activities diversification possibilities outside the tourism season; • Stagnating visitor numbers; • Uneven business skills among operators; • Poor marketing and promotional efforts; • Insufficient ecotourism infrastructure; • A proposed ecotourism tax; • Low profit margin of the ecotourism operators; and • Lack of funding for further investments To alleviate these threats and barriers 13 general strategies were identified. An elaboration of these resulted in 39 concrete operational strategies on how potentially to implement them.

Climate change is inevitable. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has forewarned the global community of the consequences of unrestrained burning of fossil fuels (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2011, para. 2). Until there is an economically viable source of alternative energy that can meet current and future demands, consumption of fossil fuels will continue to rise unless abated by models of governance that can assure sustainable use (Homer-Dixon & Garrison, 2010, p. 4). Climate change mitigation strategies take place in isolated cases where the resources and capability exist to address it. Biosphere reserves are governed as such. Each biosphere reserve has the ability to include climate change mitigation strategies within their mandates. Can these models of governance be used to demonstrate how to effectively address and mitigate climate change in other systems?

A descriptive case study approach and 34 indicators was used to examine the socio-economic impacts of whale watching tourism in the Laguna San Ignacio (LSI) World Heritage Site - located within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve in Baja California Sur, Mexico. The framework measured both the socio-economic changes, and the economic viability of the local and regional operators. This approach led to a detailed understanding of the underlying, and often complex, inter-related factors that shaped the ecotourism development in LSI between 1994 and 2002. It identified strengths and weaknesses of current ecotourism development making it a valid tool for evaluating and improving these activities in any biosphere reserve. More specifically the objectives were to examine: 1. How existing ecotourism operations and their activities in the LSI have changed since 1994; 2. Whether these changes have made ecotourism a more viable socio-economic development alternative for the local communities; and 3. Which strategies may be useful in overcoming identified barriers to further socio-economic benefits both from existing and future ecotourism activities. The results strongly suggested that the benefits from ecotourism improved significantly between 1994 and 2002. Economically this was reflected in growth of visitor numbers (50%), employment (100%) and local and regional revenue approximately 70% (or 55% in real terms adjusting for inflation). Social benefits were seen in more cooperation among previous antagonistic stakeholders; a wider distribution of ecotourism benefits; some improvement in living standards and increasing local support for the Reserve. Politically, local stakeholders became more empowered through involvement in tourism related management activities. The viability of the local and regional operators also improved significantly as they became more sophisticated in their product offerings, enhanced their facilities and gained a market share of ecotourism relative to the foreign operators. These improvements were particular true for the operators that sold package tours. However, the analyses also revealed a number of barriers with the most important ones being: • Unresolved historic land use conflicts over rights to land with ecotourism possibilities; • Lack of activities diversification possibilities outside the tourism season; • Stagnating visitor numbers; • Uneven business skills among operators; • Poor marketing and promotional efforts; • Insufficient ecotourism infrastructure; • A proposed ecotourism tax; • Low profit margin of the ecotourism operators; and • Lack of funding for further investments To alleviate these threats and barriers 13 general strategies were identified. An elaboration of these resulted in 39 concrete operational strategies on how potentially to implement them. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

No description available.

Residential outdoor schools are multi-day learning camps that provide unique settings in which to deliver environmental education. However, such schools are also very complex to develop and difficult to maintain and operate. Within Canada though, there are many examples of successful outdoor school operations, three of which are considered here: the North Vancouver Outdoor School, the Olympic Park Institute and the Golden Ears Learning Centre. From these case studies lessons can be learned regarding issues such as: land tenureship, program design, staffing options, administrative systems, facility requirements, finance options and abilities to attract students. The discussion of these factors can then be applied to the development of a nation wide network of residential outdoor schools within the framework of Canadian Biosphere Reserves. / Currently there are ten Biosphere Reserves in Canada which, when analyzed, prove to be very adequate sites for environmental education from both physical and social stand points. The Canadian Biosphere Reserve Association is the coordinating body which fosters communication and cooperation between individual Reserves. If a network of residential outdoor schools were to be developed within this association framework, it would serve, both to fulfill the Canadian Biosphere Reserve Associations mandate to support environmental education and would help partially alleviate the lack of adequate environmental education facilities in Canada today.

Sustainability has been characterized and explored mostly from an environmental standpoint, with relatively less attention paid to social and economic dimensions. Because many sustainability organizations have grown out of the environmental movement, they tend to emphasize environmental priorities and retain many of the organizational strategies that were pioneered when the focus was on environmental conservation. However, to attain a more socially and economically informed environmental practice, broader procedural aspects, including recognition and participation, and substantive aspects, including issues of social need, distribution of wealth, and economic opportunity, need to be addressed as these matters are intimately linked to environmental concerns. In this thesis, I examined sustainability organizations against the concept of ‘just sustainability’, with specific consideration paid to uniting the substantive concerns of sustainability with the procedural concerns of environmental justice. I focused my examination on model forests and UNESCO biosphere reserves located in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, an area of high economic vulnerability and low political power. By looking to governance directives from environmental justice, entrepreneurship, and community development, I conducted a multi-case study analysis with organizations that have a mandate to address the environmental, social and economic imperatives of sustainability. Through engaging these organizations in a comparative learning situation, I was able to achieve the following objectives, to: i) assess the governance strategies used within these organizations against just sustainability theory; ii) understand the challenges faced by place-based organizations and examine strategies to better improve local understanding, community empowerment, as well as sustainability outcomes; and iii) assess the feasibility - conceptually and empirically – of incorporating social entrepreneurship into the governance practices of sustainability organizations to bring together the benefits of both approaches. The findings of this thesis make valuable contributions to the empirical evidence needed to advance our understanding of just sustainability, both conceptually and in practice. Overall, my findings point to the importance of understanding and improving our practice of sustainability governance through identifying and offering examples of innovative governance arrangements that are better able to address procedural and substantive concerns. Findings show that the stakeholder model typically used by biosphere reserves and model forests contributes to systemic challenges that limit procedural justice in these organizations. By looking to other literatures, including community development and social entrepreneurship, and to lessons learned from other place-based organizations, I propose ways to adapt governance strategies to improve community engagement and organizational outcomes, including a framework to inform place-based governance for just sustainability and a “hybrid model” that captures the benefits of stakeholder representation and social enterprise. This study speaks to the need for researchers and practitioners seeking to advance sustainability governance to extend their understanding beyond environmental sustainability to embrace more social dimensions. This thesis demonstrates the value of looking to broad literatures and new models to inform sustainability governance and encourage the adoption of new ways of thinking, new strategies, and new tools to help advance sustainability.