Thesis (M.A. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

In the United States, the state of fathering has been a concern across all racial groups. Approximately 73% of Black men father children prior to marriage in comparison to 56% of Hispanic men and 30% of White men. The proportion of children born outside of marriage rose from 40% to 47% between 2002 and 2006-2010 (Martinez, Daniels, & Chandra, 2012). Shifts in economic opportunities, cultural, social, and political factors have strong influences on the way in which fatherhood is defined, experienced, and judged. Although there is a plethora of research on fathering involvement in the area of non-resident fathering, this research is dominated by a sampling pool of middle-class European Americans. The purpose of this study was to examine parenting practices of non-residential African American fathers residing in the Midwest. I explored how these men defined what it meant to be a father and their perceptions of the influences on their fathering behaviors. Ten African American non-residential fathers from the Midwest were interviewed utilizing a phenomenological interview approach. Data were collected using one-hour semi-structured interviews that were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The data were then critically and rigorously analyzed, utilizing a four part coding, data analytic method including (1) applying open coding to identify emerging concepts, (2) applying in vivo coding by grouping similar comments into categories based on their common properties, (3) applying axial coding to group codes and to create themes, and (4) organized themes into categories that was based on the theory of planned behavior constructs. Five thematic domains (i.e. external variables, attitudes towards behavior, subjective norms, perceived control, and intentions), along with seventeen themes emerged from the phenomenology data analysis procedure including: bonding, father vs. sperm donor, father warmth, identity, father roles, influences, number of children, parent’s individual differences, sex and age of the child, employment, financial support, emotions, inter-parental conflict, inter-parental relationships, relationship quality, distance, and limit setting. Findings from this study lead to several recommendations for ways to strengthen the role of fathers within the non-residential family dynamic, with the ultimate goal of improving the health and well-being of all the members of the family.

This qualitative study explored the lives of 11 Black men to better understand how Black men who were raised in single Black mother homes build romantic relationships with Black women. One focus group and a series of individual in-person interviews were conducted with the participants who ranged between 23 and 43 years of age. Participants were asked questions that inquired about their family of origin, messages they received about relationships, how they define masculinity, their perceptions of Black women, and their previous and current experiences building romantic relationships. Guided by a narrative approach, several different coding methods were used to help reveal six core themes related to the study. Some of the more significant themes include: 1) conflicted feelings towards their parents and Black women; 2) male mentorship; and 3) masculinity. Because the study was conducted using a non-deficit approach, the findings were analyzed using Helms’ “Black racial identity development model”, critical race theory, and intersectionality; to conceptualize the participants’ experiences though the lens of White privilege, racism, oppression, and racial identity. The study revealed an inequity of empathy among the group of men related to their feelings towards their mothers and fathers. Additionally, then men’s feelings towards their mothers had a larger impact compared to their fathers on their perceptions of Black woman and how they build romantic relationships. This study is significant because it is the first study to simultaneously explore single Black mother homes and Black men and romantic relationships. Additionally, the study is significant because it provides rich insight about this specific topic and other features of the Black experience along with culturally relevant interventions and implications for counselors and counselor educators.

Scholars confirm that a huge proportion of black South African men are not participating in their children's upbringing, as a result, children face various challenges that impede their wellbeing. This study is of the view that there is still a need for further investigations to explore the effects of fatherlessness on children's wellbeing and to gain new perspectives on father absence within the context of black societies in South Africa. With that in mind, this study aimed to explore the impact of fatherlessness on the psychosocial wellbeing of young black South African men. The objectives of this study included investigating the following: (1) young men's experiences of growing up without their biological fathers; (2) the psychosocial effects of growing up without a biological father on young black men; (3) the ways in which fatherlessness shapes the development of a gendered (masculine) identity among young black men; and (4) to understand the ways in which fatherlessness shapes young men's participation in cultural practices that facilitate their transition to manhood (e.g. ulwaluko). A qualitative approach research approach was adopted for this study. Semi-structured interviews (face to face) were used for data collection, and both purposive sampling and snowball sampling methods were used to recruit participants for this study. The interviews were conducted with twenty-four (24) young black men (participants) who shared their experiences of growing up without the presence of their biological fathers. These participants resided in Langa township (Western Cape). The interviews were conducted during the third wave of Covid-19, so all the protocols to safeguard the spread of Covid-19 were observed. The data was analysed using thematic analysis. It further drew on the psychosocial developmental theory by Erik Erickson (1963) as a lens through which it reflects on young men's developmental processes and the ways in which such development is shaped by the absence of biological fathers. The findings suggest that many of the participants' conceptions of the roles of fathers were in line with the traditional views of fathers as financial providers, protectors, and disciplinarians. The results of this study also gave insight into challenges faced by young black men who grew up without their biological fathers. These challenges were related to their cultural identity, which then affected their capacity to build intimate relationships, affected them when they were undergoing ulwaluko, and affected their constructions of masculinity. Fatherlessness was also shown to have a negative impact on the education and psychosocial wellbeing of the young black men in the study.

The overall goal of this project is to examine the niggarization of urban, Black, male bodies in the Unites States. We show how the niggarization of urban, Black, male bodies is the internalization of aspects of white-power structures by using a methodology that historically tracks and situates the nigga personality-type as related to and maintaining historical power structures that function as objectifying and internalizing mechanisms of the urban color-line, producing socially Black males as inferior “others.” Further, we provide a theoretical account of the historical emergence of the nigga personality-type within Black popular culture, in the 1970s, as a moment of the concealment and internalization of features of white-power structures. This project is important because objectifying and internalizing mechanisms of the “post-civil-rights” era urban color-line continue to produce socially Black males as inferior “others,” especially the disposability of lower-class, urban, Black men. Thus, we urgently need more effective strategies of resistance and struggle than that offered by the nigga personality-type in order to fight for a deeper American Democracy committed to racial justice and the dismantling of the urban color-line for the well-being of Black men.

Black men have the highest burden of prostate cancer (PCa) compared to all other races. Early detection of PCa is controversial, thus preference based PCa testing is recommended. PCa testing intention can be used as a proxy for testing preferences. Intention is known to predict behavior; however there is a gap between testing intention and testing behavior. The aims of this study were to examine the PCa testing intention-prostate specific antigen (PSA) testing gap and identify social cognitive variables that moderate the gap. Two hundred and sixteen black men participated in this longitudinal study. Results indicated PCa testing intention was a positive but moderate predictor of three PSA testing outcomes, p<.05. Men who tested in accordance with their PCa testing intention (positive or negative) ranged from 52% to 58%. Men who intended to test but did not, were the group most responsible for the PCa intention-PSA testing gap. History of PCa testing had an independent main effect on medical claim of a PSA test between time one interview and one year after time one interview, p<.05. A significant knowledge of PCa testing controversy by PCa testing intention interaction effect on medical claim of a PSA test between time one and time two interview was found, p<.05. Men who do not know about the testing controversy are more likely to have a positive intention and fulfill their testing intention. Conversely, men who are aware and appreciate the controversy surrounding testing are more ambivalent about testing. Social cognitive variables were associated with PCa testing intention-PSA testing outcomes. These variables should be considered when designing interventions to help black men to manage their risk for PCa in a manner that is consistent with their testing preferences. / Public Health

The American Dream which boasts equal opportunity, meritocracy, and prosperity in accordance with an individual's hard work and dedication continues to instill hope in upward social mobility. Understanding social mobility necessitates an examination of individuals' or groups' ability to move upward or downward in status based on wealth, occupation, education, or some other social variable ("Social mobility," n.d.). Accordingly, social mobility within a hierarchical status system like the United States parallels inequality and presents challenges for underrepresented populations. More specifically, there is a gap that exists in the perceptions, generalizations, and realizations of social mobility for Black men in America resulting in a dichotomous disparity that is perplexing and adds to some of the greatest challenges and barriers to social mobility facing Black men. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to employ a cognitive lens to examine factors affecting the social mobility experiences of Black men throughout their educational and occupational pursuits, and/or community involvement; ultimately giving voice to a traditionally marginalized group. Cognitive problem solving styles, decision making, performed behaviors, and diverse social interactions were explored within the context of negotiating overarching stereotypes, overcoming barriers, making good decisions, and persisting towards social mobility. The conceptual framework for the study took into account cognitive function, race, and resilience by way of Kirton's Adaption-Innovation Theory, Critical Race Theory, and Resilience Theory, respectively. The study findings offer counter-narratives to rebuff dominant ideology about Black men in society, facilitate an understanding of values and motivators, introduce characteristics that aid social mobility, and may inform strategies, policies, and programing that affect Black men. Recommendations for further research are also offered. / Ph. D. / The American Dream continues to inspire hope in upward social mobility. Such hope is grounded in the belief that hard work and merit will be favorably reflected in wealth, occupation, education, and other social variables that influence social mobility. However, a hierarchical status system like the United States parallels inequality and presents challenges for marginalized populations such as Black men. More specifically, a gap exists in the perceptions and realizations of their social mobility, which creates contradictions and adds to some of the greatest challenges and barriers to social mobility facing Black men in America. The purpose of this research study was to examine factors affecting the social mobility experiences of Black men using a cognitive lens, and ultimately give voice to a traditionally marginalized group. Problem solving styles, decision making, behaviors, and social environments were explored via the conceptual framework, which included Kirton’s Adaption-Innovation Theory, Critical Race Theory, and Resilience Theory. The study findings offer counter-narratives about Black men in society, facilitate an understanding of values and motivators, and introduce characteristics that aid social mobility.

Despite the evident improvements in the awareness of hypertension among the adult population in the United States, disparities remain in the burden of the disease, its treatment efficacy, and its control when data are compared along age, gender, and race. The purpose of this study was to determine the strength of the relationship between blood pressure control and prescription medication and lifestyle modification (smoking cessation, changes in eating habits, and weight loss). The target population were adult young Black men, and the control variables were age, low socioeconomic status (SES), and disparities in health care. A convenience sample of Black men (age 16-45 years) was obtained (N = 297) from the 2013-2014 NHANES dataset, and bivariate and multiple regressions were conducted after the assumptions were satisfied. The results indicated a statistically significant relationship between prescription medication and systolic blood pressure control (B = -4.327, p = 0.009). The findings of the study can promote social change by highlighting that medication compliance must be encouraged and adhered to by members of this high-risk group. However, further research is suggested to explore the efficacy of lifestyle modification closely to determine if this is a viable treatment option for young Black men of low SES in the United States.

Osteoporosis literally means 'porous bone" and is characterized by an increase in bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture, which typically involves the wrist, spine and hip (South African Medical Association (SAMA) Working Group, 2000). In South Africa osteoporosis and fractures are more common in whites than in blacks. African-American men experience hip fractures at a rate of only half of that of Caucasian men. The bone mass in Africans were found to be 6 - 12 % higher than in Caucasians at all ages. A higher peak bone density at skeletal maturity in African-Americans were found, so that despite comparable age related bone loss, African Americans reach the fracture threshold less frequently than whites. Age-related bone loss that begins later, is less severe, or occurs in different skeletal sites in African-Americans than whites (Luckey et al., 1996). American whites have a higher bone turnover than American blacks, but in contrast to this American data. South African blacks may have a higher bone turnover and lower bone density than whites (Daniels et a/., 1995). If it is compared with Caucasians a lower rate of hip fracture in South African blacks were found, despite lower bone density at all ages (Villa, 1994). The lower fracture rate in blacks than in whites is because of greater bone mass and higher bone turnover leading to more frequent renewal of damaged bone. Blacks excrete less urinary calcium, and show no skeletal sensitivity towards the parathyroid hormone. Few studies focus on older black South African men and osteoporosis. Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of calcium intake, vitamin D status, anthropometry and physical activity and bone density in black South African men. Methods A case-control study design was used, in which variables associated with bone density were compared. The case group were men with fractures of the proximal femur, the proximal humerus or the distal radius and an equal number of age-matched healthy black men (with not more than a 5-year age difference) with no fracture (the proximal femur and humerus and distal radius) previously, was recruited as a control group. Bone density was measured with DEXA. Fat percentage was measured with a Tanita scale. Biochemical analyses were done. Questionnaires were used to gather demographic, activity and dietary information. To our knowledge, this is the first case-control study on osteoporotic fractures in South African black men. Results Both the groups' bone mineral densities were lower than recommended. The bone density of the case group for lumbar and hip regions was 0.86 and 0.88 and the control group's bone density for lumbar region was 0.95 and hip region 0.91. The control group was more physically active and had a better nutritional status than the case group. The control group's calcium intake was higher but the vitamin D status was lower than the case group. Both calcium and vitamin D status were not statistically significant (pc0.5), between the two groups. Body mass indices of the groups were the same. The serum albumin was higher in the control group than in the case group. The case group serum calcium was higher than the control group. Both serum albumin and serum calcium were statistical significant between the two groups. There were no statistically significant differences in any of the other biochemical variables between the two groups. Serum phosphate and serum vitamin D were statistical significant for bone density of the hip and lumbar regions. Conclusion To conclude it seems logical to suggest a healthy diet with optimal macro- and micro nutrient intake. Maintain ideal body weight and body fat percentage and recommend regular but moderate-weight-bearing exercise from a young age throughout adult life, as part of a strategy to prevent and treat osteoporosis. In the present study black South African men present with low bone mineral density, but other studies indicated a lower rate of hip fracture in South African blacks, despite lower bone density at all ages. It can be recommended that other factors may play a role in black South African men with osteoporosis. Factors such as serum phosphorus, 25-hydroxy-vitamin D, body mass index (BMI), physical activity index (PAI), animal protein, total fat intake and dietary calcium are important determinants of BMD in older South African blacks, as shown in the present study. Osteoporosis is a multi factorial problem and must be treated that way. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Osteoporosis literally means 'porous bone" and is characterized by an increase in bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture, which typically involves the wrist, spine and hip (South African Medical Association (SAMA) Working Group, 2000). In South Africa osteoporosis and fractures are more common in whites than in blacks. African-American men experience hip fractures at a rate of only half of that of Caucasian men. The bone mass in Africans were found to be 6 - 12 % higher than in Caucasians at all ages. A higher peak bone density at skeletal maturity in African-Americans were found, so that despite comparable age related bone loss, African Americans reach the fracture threshold less frequently than whites. Age-related bone loss that begins later, is less severe, or occurs in different skeletal sites in African-Americans than whites (Luckey et al., 1996). American whites have a higher bone turnover than American blacks, but in contrast to this American data. South African blacks may have a higher bone turnover and lower bone density than whites (Daniels et a/., 1995). If it is compared with Caucasians a lower rate of hip fracture in South African blacks were found, despite lower bone density at all ages (Villa, 1994). The lower fracture rate in blacks than in whites is because of greater bone mass and higher bone turnover leading to more frequent renewal of damaged bone. Blacks excrete less urinary calcium, and show no skeletal sensitivity towards the parathyroid hormone. Few studies focus on older black South African men and osteoporosis. Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of calcium intake, vitamin D status, anthropometry and physical activity and bone density in black South African men. Methods A case-control study design was used, in which variables associated with bone density were compared. The case group were men with fractures of the proximal femur, the proximal humerus or the distal radius and an equal number of age-matched healthy black men (with not more than a 5-year age difference) with no fracture (the proximal femur and humerus and distal radius) previously, was recruited as a control group. Bone density was measured with DEXA. Fat percentage was measured with a Tanita scale. Biochemical analyses were done. Questionnaires were used to gather demographic, activity and dietary information. To our knowledge, this is the first case-control study on osteoporotic fractures in South African black men. Results Both the groups' bone mineral densities were lower than recommended. The bone density of the case group for lumbar and hip regions was 0.86 and 0.88 and the control group's bone density for lumbar region was 0.95 and hip region 0.91. The control group was more physically active and had a better nutritional status than the case group. The control group's calcium intake was higher but the vitamin D status was lower than the case group. Both calcium and vitamin D status were not statistically significant (pc0.5), between the two groups. Body mass indices of the groups were the same. The serum albumin was higher in the control group than in the case group. The case group serum calcium was higher than the control group. Both serum albumin and serum calcium were statistical significant between the two groups. There were no statistically significant differences in any of the other biochemical variables between the two groups. Serum phosphate and serum vitamin D were statistical significant for bone density of the hip and lumbar regions. Conclusion To conclude it seems logical to suggest a healthy diet with optimal macro- and micro nutrient intake. Maintain ideal body weight and body fat percentage and recommend regular but moderate-weight-bearing exercise from a young age throughout adult life, as part of a strategy to prevent and treat osteoporosis. In the present study black South African men present with low bone mineral density, but other studies indicated a lower rate of hip fracture in South African blacks, despite lower bone density at all ages. It can be recommended that other factors may play a role in black South African men with osteoporosis. Factors such as serum phosphorus, 25-hydroxy-vitamin D, body mass index (BMI), physical activity index (PAI), animal protein, total fat intake and dietary calcium are important determinants of BMD in older South African blacks, as shown in the present study. Osteoporosis is a multi factorial problem and must be treated that way. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.