Please read the Summary and Conclusions(04chapter4) on pages 141-143 / Thesis (DSc (Agriculture))--University of Pretoria, 1963. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

Citrus black spot (CBS), caused by Guignardia citricarpa Kiely, occurs in various citrus producing regions of the world. Due to the potential phytosanitary risk associated with the export of fruit from CBS positive production areas to CBS-free countries, restrictive trade barriers have been introduced. This study aimed to further elucidate some epidemiological aspects of CBS that can be used to address critical questions identified in the pest risk assessment submitted by South Africa to the World Trade Organisation to address phytosanitary trade restrictions. Results indicated that Eureka lemon leaf litter exposed to viable pycnidiospores under controlled conditions or in the field in different production regions of South Africa, were not infected and colonised by G. citricarpa. Symptomatic CBS fruit or peel lying on the ground underneath citrus trees therefore can not lead to infection and colonisation of freshly detached leaves or leaf litter, or represent a source of inoculum in citrus orchards. Symptomatic fruit therefore pose no danger for the establishment of the pathogen in CBS-free orchards and are not considered to be a pathway for the pathogen. The period of leaf susceptibility to G. citricarpa was indicated to be maximum eight and ten months from development, for Valencia orange and Eureka lemon, respectively, in a greenhouse study. The susceptibility period of citrus leaves to infection by the black spot pathogen could be longer than previously perceived. Ascospores were captured, using the newly developed Kotzé Inoculum Monitor (KIM), from natural Valencia orange and Eureka lemon leaf litter during October to March with peak ascospore availability between December to February. The KIM is the first sampler designed to capture fungal spores directly from plant material in the laboratory without environmental influences and was effectively used to confirm that ascospores production is seasonal. The KIM in combination with environmental data can be used to improve control through more targeted fungicide applications. Techniques such as isolations and DNA amplification with species-specific primers to detect the pathogen directly from symptomless green leaves have a low success rate due to the restricted growth of the pathogen in latently infected tissue. Artificial leaf wilting enhanced the detection of G. citricarpa from symptomless leaves. Leaf wilting is a reliable, fast and effective method to detect the CBS pathogen and can be applied to monitor citrus nurseries and orchards throughout the year. It can also be applied to monitor pest-free orchards to maintain its CBS pest-free status. This study confirmed that sanitation practices, such as leaf litter removal and mulching of leaf litter with wheat straw can decrease the primary inoculum, ascospores, of CBS and contribute to better management of the disease in a commercial orchard. Regardless of the prevailing climatic conditions each year, control achieved through leaf litter management resulted in >95% clean fruit and are equal to the control achieved with industry standard fungicides. This approach provided improved integrated disease control and an alternative to chemical control. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

Les animaux infectés ont une odeur, une apparence, un comportement et/ou un son différent de leurs congénères non infectés. Ces différences peuvent servir d'indices pour reconnaître et éviter les individus infectés. Des études récentes montrent que les hôtes potentiels peuvent utiliser les indices visuels et/ou chimiques pour éviter les individus infectés et minimiser les risques d'infection. Par ailleurs, la prévalence d’un parasite dans l’environnement peut influencer l’apprentissage ainsi que la force de sélection pour la reconnaissance et l’évitement de ce parasite. Bien qu'il existe des preuves que les poissons utilisent des comportements d’évitement pour réduire le risque d'infection, les mécanismes sous-jacents restent peu connus. Nous avons examiné la capacité de deux populations (naïves et expérimentées aux parasites) de crapets-soleil (Lepomis gibbosus) à distinguer les congénères infectés par des vers parasites et les congénères non infectés (c.-à-d. expériences de choix binaires) en utilisant séparément les indices visuels et chimiques. En présence d’indices visuels, les crapets ont montré une forte préférence pour leurs congénères, quel que soit le niveau d'infection, plutôt que d'être seuls. À l’inverse, les crapets évitaient leurs congénères et restaient seuls en présence d’indices chimiques. Nous suggérons que les indices visuels et chimiques ne sont pas redondants et que les crapets utilisent les deux pour prendre des décisions sociales adéquates. Les poissons des deux populations n'ont montré aucune préférence en présence d’indices visuels de congénères infectés et non infectés. Cependant, en présence d’indices chimiques, il existait une grande variation en termes de préférence : certains préférant les congénères non infectés et d'autres préférant les congénères infectés. En moyenne, notre population naïve a évité les congénères infectés alors que notre population expérimentée n'a montré aucune préférence, ce qui suggère une habituation aux signaux d'infection dans la population expérimentée. Nous proposons que les crapets utilisent des indices chimiques plutôt que visuels pour discriminer leurs congénères infectés et non infectés. Notre étude souligne l'importance de prendre en compte différents indices sensoriels ainsi que la charge parasitaire lors de l'étude des comportements d'évitement et de formation de bancs. Ceci est particulièrement important sachant que l'environnement chimique et visuel ainsi que l'abondance des parasites sont modifiés par les changements globaux tel que les pluies acides, le brunissement et l’eutrophisation des écosystèmes d’eau douce. / Infected animals smell, look, behave and/or sound different from uninfected conspecifics. These differences can serve as cues used to recognize and avoid infected individuals. Recent studies show that visual and/or chemical cues of infected individuals can be used by potential hosts to modify their movement behaviours and minimize risks of infection. Furthermore, the prevalence of a parasite in the environment can influence learning and the strength of selection for parasite recognition and avoidance. Although there is some evidence that fishes use prophylactic behaviours to reduce infection risk, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. We investigated the ability of two populations (naive and experienced to parasites) of wild caught pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus) in distinguishing between conspecifics infected with parasitic worms versus uninfected individuals (i.e. binary choice experiments) using visual and chemical cues separately. Pumpkinseeds showed a strong preference for conspecifics, regardless of their infection level, over being alone when given visual cues but avoided conspecifics and remained alone when given chemical cues. We suggest that visual and chemical cues are not redundant, and that pumpkinseeds use both to make relevant social decisions. Fish of both populations did not show any preferences when given visual cues of infected and uninfected conspecifics. However, in the presence of chemical cues, there was a great variation in terms of preference: some preferring uninfected conspecifics while others preferring the infected ones. On average, our naive population avoided infected conspecifics whereas our experienced one did not show any preferences, suggesting habituation to infection cues in the experienced population. We propose that pumpkinseeds use chemical rather than visual cues to discriminate between infected and uninfected conspecifics and make a shoaling decision. Our study highlights the importance of considering different sensory cues as well as parasite load when studying avoidance and shoaling behaviours. This is particularly important in a time of modifying chemical and visual environment as well as parasites abundance through global change such as acid rain, browning and eutrophication of freshwater ecosystems.