Abstract not available. / Thesis (MBA)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2007.

In recent years, universities, municipalities, and other public and private organizations throughout Canada have banned the sale of bottled water from their facilities. To explore how such bans are linguistically and textually framed, proposed, and debated, this thesis analyzes drinking water policy and practice at the University of Victoria. Using Maarten Hajer’s approach to discourse analysis, discourses, story-lines, and discourse coalitions are identified. Through interviews with key players as well as textual analysis, I identify several discourses being mobilized to discuss drinking water at the University of Victoria, including that drinking water is an environmental issue, a public resource, a human right, a commodity, a health issue, and a revenue issue. The key discourse coalition working to define the issue of drinking water is a student coalition comprising the University of Victoria Sustainability Project and the University of Victoria Students’ Society. This coalition is promoting the argument that the sale of bottled water should be banned on campus. / Graduate / 0630 / 0768 / jaynab@uvic.ca

The theme of my graduation theses was Marketing market research of a selected company. The firm was manufacturing corporation HBSW Inc. Byňov. The aim of the thesis was take the requirements of consumers and take the market potentials with bottled water. I solved the questions e.g. what influences the end user (for example: price, advertising, flavour, packaging) and farther structure of the end user (form example: age, sex, education, employment). I studied the professional books and the digest of these books is in the second part of my work. The questionary had twenty-three questions. Eight questions appertained to the shopping behavior, ten questions appertained to the consumer behavior, and five questions appertained to the consumer. I used the questions with an opened end and the questions with a closed end. The obtained information was processed in the computer programme MS Excel and Statistica 6.0. I ascertained what new flavours would the consumers like, which flavours are the most popular, how to change the consumption of the packaged water depending on the season. After the data evaluation and data presentation I suggested the solution for the selected company. I believe that this research helps the company HBSW Inc. in the next steps and decision.

NSF/ANSI 53 lead-certified point-of-use filters (POUs) have been distributed to consumers in many cities facing water lead crises, including Washington D.C., Flint, MI, Newark, NJ, and University Park, IL. It is expected that these filters would reduce water lead to levels that are safe for consumption as residents wait for municipalities to provide more permanent solutions (e.g., corrosion control, lead service line replacement). These filters are certified by the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) after meeting the challenges of treating two lab synthesized waters with 150 μg/L of soluble and particulate lead. In Flint, as in Washington, there were initial concerns that the filters would not be effective when exposed to lead levels far above the NSF/ANSI 53 150 μg/L Pb level used for certification. However, the EPA conducted a 2016 study in Flint, MI, with over 240 homes with lead up to 4080 μg/L, revealing that all POUs reduced lead levels below 1 μg/L. Newark, NJ, in response to Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) violations, distributed over 40,000 NSF/ANSI 53 lead-certified pitcher and faucet POUs to protect consumers from high water lead levels. In the summer of 2019, preliminary tests in some homes with the highest lead in water concentrations revealed that 2 of 3 POUs used in Newark had effluent lead levels above 15 μg/L. The publication of these results caused citywide angst, distrust, and EPA mandated a switch to bottled water. However, a later and more extensive study revealed that 97.5% of homes (n=198) with properly used filters had effluent lead levels below 10 μg/L. As a result, the EPA approved Newark's request to discontinue bottled water distribution and only provide POUs to residents. Nevertheless, the experience indicated that it is vital to understand the limitations of POUs. This dissertation comprises three manuscripts that examine the efficacy of POUs under laboratory and field conditions. The first manuscript sought to provide perspective into potential causes of the filter failures observed in the field. We conducted an extensive laboratory investigation that examined the performance of 10 pitcher and faucet POU brands under extreme conditions (e.g., up to 200% of rated capacity, influent lead levels ≈ 1000 μg/L). Our tests confirmed successful performance documented in some field testing and replicated underperformance observed in others. In this investigation, we observed structural failures due to poor manufacturing (i.e., leaking units, a filter with a large hole in the media) and performance failures (filtered water >10 μg/L Pb). Some of the performance failures occurred when we tested particulate lead waters, which we created, proving to be very difficult to treat relative to those used for NSF/ANSI testing. While the POUs almost always reduce consumer lead exposure, even when operated beyond their rated capacity, this study highlights instances where treated water could far exceed 10 μg/L lead. High particulate iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) concentrations often co-occur with high lead in many low-income, rural communities with small community water systems (CWS) or in homes with private wells. These communities are more likely to depend on POUs for protection from waterborne lead as they typically do not have the funds to maintain and upgrade infrastructure, improve corrosion control, or replace service lines. Waters with high levels of Fe and Mn could potentially impact the performance of the POU lead filters. However, such problems would not be detected in NSF/ANSI certification testing because these constituents are not included within the test water. The second manuscript validated anecdotal reports of premature POU failure due to clogging in rural communities with high iron concentrations in their water. POU pitcher filters were tested with waters containing high lead and iron up to 100% of their rated capacity, or until they clogged as defined by a 75% reduction in initial flowrate. Iron levels above the 0.3 mg/L Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL) resulted in rapid clogging, markedly increasing treatment costs, and decreasing consumer satisfaction. At 0.3 mg/L Fe, half of the 6 POU filters tested were clogged at between 38-68% of their rated capacity. When considering the cost of using POU filters vs. purchasing bottled water, the POU devices were often more cost-effective at iron levels at or below 0.3 mg/L. However, as iron concentrations increased, bottled water often became cost-effective depending on the circumstance. The presence of iron did not have an adverse effect on lead removal but significantly affected the cost and reduced flow rates in treating water. The third manuscript presents a two-phase field study that sought to monitor the long-term filter performance in residential homes in New Orleans and Enterprise, LA. Previous field studies have captured POU removal efficiencies in single event (grab) samples; however, this study quantified filter performance for all the water treated up to POU practical capacity (i.e., filter life) based on consumer judgment regarding acceptable flow rate. The first phase was a rigorously controlled study that tested the POUs (100-gal capacity) at up to 200% of their rated capacity in two New Orleans unoccupied homes. Historically, the first home had consistently high lead levels (10-25 μg/L) even after flushing for > 8 min. Duplicate POUs treated that water to below 5 μg/L at up to 100% capacity, with only two exceptional samples with 12 μg/L Pb in 10-gallon batches of the treated water. The second home had a disturbed lead service line (LSL), resulting in varying concentrations of influent particulate lead ranging from 9-3000 μg/L. The duplicate POUs had difficulty producing water lead levels <10 μg/L before reaching filter capacity, with eight exceedances prior to 100% capacity. This work demonstrated that flushing alone for extended periods (>8 minutes) is not guaranteed to reduce lead levels in all homes with LSLs and highlights some limitations of POU filters in treating water with high levels of particulate lead. The second phase of the field study monitored POU faucet filter performance in the homes of 21 residents in New Orleans (8) and Enterprise (13), LA. New Orleans is a large urban area with low to moderate water lead levels with many partial LSL replacements. Enterprise (population <300) is a rural, low-income community with an unincorporated water system with moderate to high water lead, iron, and manganese levels. Overall, the POUs consistently reduced lead to <1 μg/L, iron <171 μg/L, and manganese <180 μg/L. Enterprise's high influent concentrations of iron significantly impacted filter capacity due to reduced flow and clogging. Enterprise homes saw an average 62% flowrate reduction, and most of the homes did not reach 50% of the filter's rated capacity before consumers decided the filters were clogged. Most New Orleans residents did not experience clogging, and the homes that did saw only a 16% flow rate reduction. Overall, the New Orleans POUs were 2.3X faster in treating water by the study's end than Enterprise. There was no simple correlation between average iron concentration and days of filter life amongst residents in Enterprise as would be expected given variations in the volume of water used daily and consumer subjectivity in deciding when to end the study due to clogging. However, residents in Enterprise and similar communities would likely need to purchase 2-4 times as many filter cartridges due to clogging when compared to cities like New Orleans with lower iron concentrations. This study shows how POUs have promise for the removal of Pb and Fe in residential homes, but clogging has emerged as an important practical limitation to widespread successful POU deployment. This dissertation highlighted the multifaceted nature of the question: "How well do POU filters work and under what conditions?" Overall, the POUs have shown their ability to reduce water lead levels effectively <5 μg/L, with a few exceptions primarily attributed to particulate lead and manufacturing quality control issues. However, when treating waters with high levels of iron and other contaminants, POU clogging can cause consumer dissatisfaction and make purchasing bottled water a more favorable solution than POU filters. / Doctor of Philosophy / Lead-certified point-of-use filters (POUs) have been distributed to consumers in many cities facing water lead crises, including Washington D.C., Flint, MI, Newark, NJ, and University Park, IL. In Flint, as in Washington, there were initial concerns that the filters would not be effective when exposed to lead levels far above the 150 μg/L lead concentration used for certification. The EPA conducted a 2016 study in Flint, MI (>400 homes) that showed all POUs successfully reduced lead levels below 1 μg/L. Newark, NJ, distributed over 40,000 lead-certified pitcher and faucet POUs to protect consumers from high water lead levels. In the summer of 2019, preliminary tests in some homes with the most challenging particulate lead in water concentrations revealed that 2 of 3 POUs used in Newark had effluent lead levels above 15 μg/L. The publication of these results caused citywide angst, distrust and an EPA mandated a switch to bottled water. A few weeks later, a more extensive study revealed that over 97.5% of homes had filters that effectively reduced lead. Millions of dollars invested in the POU filters in Newark were wasted as many residents discontinued use despite positive counter-messaging of overall POU performance. Newark's filter experience illuminated how vital it is to understand the limitations of lead-certified filters as our reliance on these POUs for lead remediation increases. This dissertation comprises three manuscripts that examine the efficacy of lead-certified POUs under laboratory and field conditions. The first manuscript provides some perspective into potential causes of the filter failures observed in the field. We conducted an extensive laboratory investigation that examined the performance of 10 pitcher and faucet POU brands under extreme conditions (i.e., used well past capacity and with high lead concentrations). Our tests confirmed successful performance documented in some field testing and replicated underperformance observed in others. In addition, this investigation observed structural failures due to poor manufacturing and performance failures (> 10 μg/L Pb) when testing particulate lead waters. While the POUs almost always reduce consumer lead exposure, even when operated beyond their rated capacity, this study highlights instances where filtered water could far exceed 10 μg/L lead. The second manuscript validated anecdotal reports of premature POU failure due to clogging in rural communities with high iron concentrations in their water. Particulate iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) often co-occur with high lead concentrations and cause most discoloration seen in drinking water (i.e., orange and black water). Low-income rural communities with small water systems are more likely to depend on POUs to protect them from waterborne lead as they typically do not have the funds to maintain and upgrade infrastructure, improve corrosion control, or replace service lines. In this study, POU pitcher filters were tested with waters containing high lead and iron up to 100% of their rated capacity, or until they clogged as defined by a 75% reduction in initial flowrate. The presence of iron did not have an adverse effect on lead removal. However, iron significantly affected POU water treatment costs and reduced flow rates. Iron levels above the 0.3 mg/L Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL) resulted in rapid clogging prior to reaching rated capacity, resulting in increased treatment costs and decreased consumer satisfaction and convenience. When considering the cost of using POU filters vs. purchasing bottled water, the POU devices were often more cost-effective at iron levels 0.3 mg/L. However, as iron concentrations increased, bottled water often became cost-effective depending on the circumstance. The third manuscript presents a two-phase field study that sought to monitor the long-term filter performance in residential homes in New Orleans and Enterprise, LA. Previous field studies have captured POU removal efficiencies in single event (grab) samples. However, this study captures filter performance for all the water treated up to POU practical capacity (i.e., filter life) based on consumer judgment regarding acceptable flow rate. The first phase was a controlled rig study that tested the POUs filters (100-gal capacity) up to 200% capacity in two New Orleans unoccupied homes. Historically, the first home had consistently high lead levels (10-25 μg/L) even after flushing for > 8 min. Throughout the 20-day study, the duplicate POUs in this home supplied filtered water with <5 μg/L Pb up to 100% capacity, with only two exceptions (each sample had 12 μg/L Pb). The second home had a disturbed lead service line (LSL), resulting in varying concentrations of influent particulate lead ranging from 9-3000 μg/L. The duplicate POUs in this home did not consistently produce filtered water with <10 μg/L Pb, as they had eight exceedances before reaching 100% capacity. This work demonstrated that flushing the tap is not guaranteed to reduce lead levels in all homes with LSLs, even when flushing >8 minutes. It also highlighted some limitations of POU filters in treating water with high levels of particulate lead. The second phase of the field study monitored POU faucet filter performance in the homes of 21 residents in New Orleans (8) and Enterprise (13), LA. New Orleans is a large urban area with low to moderate water lead levels with many partial LSL replacements. Enterprise (population <300) is a rural, low-income community with an unincorporated water system with moderate to high water lead, iron, and manganese levels. Overall, the POUs consistently reduced lead to <1 μg/L, iron <171 μg/L, and manganese <180 μg/L. Enterprise's high influent concentrations of iron significantly impacted filter capacity due to reduced flow and clogging. Most of the homes in Enterprise did not reach 50% of the filter's rated capacity before consumers decided the filters were clogged. The New Orleans residents did not experience POU clogging, and many filters reached capacity. The New Orleans filters were also 2.3X faster in treating water by the study's end than Enterprise. There was no statistical correlation between iron concentration and filter life; however, residents in Enterprise and similar communities would likely need to purchase 2-4 times as many filter cartridges due to clogging compared to cities like New Orleans with lower iron concentrations. This study shows how POUs have promise for the removal of Pb and Fe in residential homes. However, clogging has emerged as an important practical limitation to successful POU deployment. This dissertation highlighted the multifaceted nature of the question: "How well do POU filters work and under what conditions?" Overall, the POUs have shown their ability to reduce water lead levels effectively <5 μg/L, with a few exceptions primarily attributed to particulate lead and manufacturing quality control issues. However, when treating waters with high levels of iron and other contaminants, POU clogging can cause consumer dissatisfaction and make purchasing bottled water a more favorable solution than POU filters.

The bottled water industry in Mexico represents a new method of providing drinking water to a society without ties to a conventional central piped domestic water supply system. Mexico, the world's leader in bottled water per capita consumption, has struggled to provide reliable, safe drinking water for its citizens. This study examines the context in which the bottled water industry rose to become the primary source of drinking water for a majority of Mexicans. The study shows how the combination of factors allowed the industry's rapid rise from a niche market of elite and 'healing' waters to its present size. The cholera epidemic of the 1990s, the 1985 earthquake, and the financial crisis that left Mexico unable to invest in water infrastructure forced consumers to seek alternative water sources. Political factors and the liberalizing reforms of the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s facilitated market solutions and private-public-partnerships to meet the needs of the Mexican citizens. The world's largest food and beverage distributors bought into the market and found that the public was willing to pay cash for water bottles where the public water sector had failed to deliver potable water. Despite the fact that bottled water is more expensive per unit of water than a centralized delivery system, consumers are willing to pay a high price for clean water. It is an open question whether consumers return to tap water even after improvements have been made, once the bottled water industry has been so established. / text

En el Perú, el crecimiento de agua embotellada refleja lo que ocurre a nivel mundial, existe una mayor preocupación por el cuidado de la salud por parte de las personas y gobiernos de cada país. Por estos motivos se ha realizado una investigación cualitativa a través de focus group y entrevistas a expertos y cuantitativa, en donde se ha recogido información de 387 personas, de una zona específica, a las que se ha consultado sobre sus preferencias y percepción sobre los factores que utilizan las empresas de agua embotellada. En el primer capítulo se abordarán definiciones y teorías que nos permitan explicar las hipótesis planteadas, tales como marketing en el punto de venta, publicidad y comportamiento al consumidor. Luego se analizarán el resultado de la recolección de datos. Con ello, responderemos a los objetivos planteados y daremos una conclusión respecto a toda la investigación. / In Peru, growth in bottled water reflects what is happening globally, there is greater concern about health care by the people and governments of each country. For these reasons it has made a qualitative research using tools such as focus groups and interviews with experts and quantitative, where it has collected information from 387 people in a specific area, which have been consulted about their preferences and perception of factors used by bottled water companies to compete. In the first chapter definitions and theories that allow us to explain the raised, such as marketing at the point of sale, advertising and consumer behavior will be addressed hypotheses. In the following chapters, data obtained in collecting data analyzed. This will respond to the objectives and give you a conclusion about the entire investigation. / Tesis

A presente pesquisa analisa a atividade de produÃÃo de Ãgua envasada no MunicÃpio de Fortaleza, diferenciando a Ãgua mineral da Ãgua potÃvel de mesa, esta Ãltima comercializada como Ãgua adicionada de sais. A motivaÃÃo para este trabalho surgiu da perspectiva de crescimento acelerado da atividade econÃmica de envasamento de Ãgua potÃvel, sabendo-se que em Fortaleza a degradaÃÃo ambiental à observada com grande intensidade, com conseqÃÃncias para os recursos hÃdricos. A sustentabilidade foi analisada sob dois aspectos: o financeiro e o ambiental. A pesquisa foi dividida em trÃs etapas. Na primeira foi realizada a caracterizaÃÃo da atividade em Fortaleza, inclusive a anÃlise qualitativa da Ãgua envasada, considerando as ResoluÃÃes da ANVISA. No segundo momento foi realizada a anÃlise de sustentabilidade financeira a partir de levantamento dos custos de investimento e dos custos de operaÃÃo, administraÃÃo e manutenÃÃo (OAM) da atividade. Na terceira etapa foi avaliada a sustentabilidade ambiental da atividade atravÃs da anÃlise de vulnerabilidade dos aqÃÃferos de Fortaleza aplicando o Ãndice DRASTIC. Como resultado da etapa de caracterizaÃÃo, foram analisadas no ano de 2007, 23 marcas de Ãgua adicionada de sais e cinco de Ãgua mineral, encontrando-se presenÃa de coliformes totais com ausÃncia de outros microrganismos. No entanto, a qualidade da Ãgua envasada de Fortaleza està dentro do limite aceitÃvel da legislaÃÃo. Os resultados da segunda etapa indicaram que a sustentabilidade financeira da atividade serà dada sempre que for possÃvel arrecadar pelo menos R$ 1,36 por garrafÃo de 20 litros, o que corresponde aos custos totais de investimento e OAM. A sustentabilidade ambiental pode ser obtida, em Fortaleza, de modo relativamente simples, pois a vulnerabilidade dos seus aqÃÃferos à baixa e a atividade à pouco poluente. A anÃlise do Ãndice DRASTIC para Fortaleza demonstrou que seus aqÃÃferos tÃm vulnerabilidade regional baixa (cerca de metade da Ãrea, predominantemente no setor centro-sul da cidade), intermediÃria (predominantemente no centro do municÃpio) ou alta (na regiÃo costeira norte). As Ãreas de exploraÃÃo de Ãguas subterrÃneas para envase em Fortaleza localizam-se principalmente em regiÃes com vulnerabilidade baixa: das nove fontes analisadas, sete localizam-se na Ãrea de baixa vulnerabilidade, duas na regiÃo de vulnerabilidade intermediÃria e nenhuma na Ãrea de vulnerabilidade alta. Isso à muito positivo para a qualidade da Ãgua, embora nÃo signifique que nÃo haja risco de poluiÃÃo, principalmente diante do cenÃrio ambiental da cidade de Fortaleza. Quanto à atividade de envase de Ãgua em si, avaliou-se que esta pode ser realizada sem ocasionar grandes impactos negativos ao meio ambiente. / This study examines the activity of producing bottled water in the city of Fortaleza, discriminating between mineral water and the table drinking water, the latter marketed as "water with added salts". The subject of this work was inspired by the prospect of accelerated growth of the economic activity of bottling drinking water, given that in Fortaleza environmental degradation is observably happening at a very accelerated pace, with deleterious consequences for water resources. Sustainability was examined in two respects: the financial and the environmental. The research was divided into three stages. The first was the characterization of the activity held in Fortaleza, including the qualitative analysis of the bottled water, considering the resolutions of ANVISA. In the second stage, the analysis of financial sustainability was carried out, by the assessment of investment costs and costs of operation, administration and maintenance (OAM) of the activity. In the third stage the environmental sustainability of the activity was assessed through the analysis of vulnerability of the aquifers of Fortaleza, applying the index DRASTIC. During the stage of characterization, 23 brands of salt-added water, and five of mineral water, were examined (in 2007), being observed the presence of coliform bacteria but no other microorganisms. The quality of bottled water of Fortaleza, however, was verified to be within the acceptable limits of the local legislation. The results of the second stage indicated that the financial sustainability of the activity would be met as long as it was possible to collect at least R$ 1.36 per 20 liters bottle, which would correspond to the total costs of investment and OAM. As for environmental sustainability of the activity, it can be easily satisfied (in Fortaleza) given the low average vulnerability of the Fortaleza aquifers and the low pollution potential of the activity. The analysis of DRASTIC Index for the aquifers of Fortaleza has shown that their regional vulnerability is low (about half the area, predominantly in central-southern sector of the city), intermediate (predominantly in the centre of the city) or high (in the northern coastal region). The areas of exploitation of groundwater for bottling in Fortaleza are mainly located in regions with low vulnerability: the nine sources analyzed, seven are located in downtown area of low vulnerability, two in the region of intermediate vulnerability and none in the area of high vulnerability. This, of course, is very positive for bottled water quality, but does not mean that there is no risk of pollution, especially considering the environmental scenario of the city of Fortaleza. As for the activity of water bottling, it was concluded that, in this case, it can be exerted without causing serious damage to the environment.

Over-consumption in developed economies undoubtedly puts a large strain on the environment, and many would argue that the damage is irreversible. Current uses and rates of consumption of freshwater resources are also deemed to be unsustainable. A large contributor to the high demand for water is the shift in consumer preferences from tap to bottled water. In the last few decades, bottled water companies have set unprecedented records, surpassing all other types of non-alcoholic beverages to become the second largest beverage market next to soda. Bottled water has been on the rise due to its supposed safety, purity and convenience. Municipal tap water companies have little to no incentive for disproving these theories since tap water continues to be used for non-drinking purposes. Meanwhile, bottled water companies are spending millions of dollars in appealing advertisements, which further fuels distrust of tap water providers. The purpose of this thesis was to determine how consumers understand the differences between bottled and tap water, and how such understandings were linked to individual socioeconomic characteristics, properties of bottled water, knowledge of its environmental costs and advertising and marketing. Since the city of Pensacola in Florida was recently determined to have some of the worst tap water in the country, it presented an interesting case study for the discussion of bottled water consumption. Two separate neighborhoods, chosen based on average income, were surveyed in Pensacola, and residents were asked about their bottled water consumption and preferences. Topics of inquiry included frequency of consumption, reasons for and against bottled water consumption, and opinions and knowledge surrounding bottled water. The majority of respondents of this study regularly drank bottled water regardless of income. Convenience was the most popular reason cited for drinking bottled water, and taste also emerged as an important property. Respondents did not consider themselves to be influenced by advertising and marketing by bottled water companies. Concerns regarding tap water were related to the safety and taste of water supply. Participants were to some extent aware of the environmental implications of drinking bottled water, yet this knowledge did not keep them from drinking bottled water. This thesis thus shows that making people aware of the environmental and economic costs of bottled water is not sufficient to regaining tap water trustworthiness. Instead, the habits of consumerism which make it convenient to purchase bottled water seem to be implicated in the popularity of bottled water.

Previous studies have shown that low-income Latinos frequently drink bottled water instead of tap water and might be at increased risk for dental caries from unfluoridated bottled water. The goals of this study were to: 1) determine if a difference exists between grab samples of municipal tap water and bottled water used by families in Nogales, Arizona in chemical and microbial contaminants; 2) understand the risk perceptions these low-income families have about both their publically supplied tap water, bottled/vended water; and 3) examine whether families have adequate fluoride levels in their drinking water for optimal dental health. Tap and bottled water samples were collected from thirty of these households for analysis of drinking-water contaminants regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Bottled water included small (0.5 L) and large (3.8 L), individually sealed water bottles as well as water vended into reusable containers from self-service vending machines or from water stores. Some of the large bottles were purchased sealed, but had been previously opened and partially consumed by study participants. In addition to the 30 households mentioned above, an additional sixty low-income Latino households, who primarily drink bottled water, were also recruited for this study to complete a questionnaire on risk perceptions related to drinking water consumption, water storage practices, and fluoride supplementation. There were no significant differences in the concentration of chemical contaminants between tap, bottled and vended water, and none of the chemical concentrations exceeded USEPA regulations. Escherichia coli (E. coli) was confirmed in 3% (1/30) of tap, 0% (0/8) of sealed bottled, 40% (2/5) of previously opened bottled, and 35% (6/17) of vended water samples. One of the 3 samples collected directly from a vending machine had an E. coli concentration of 0.33 CFU/100 mL. None of the 10 samples collected directly from sealed bottles purchased directly from the store had any E. coli detected. While no significant differences were observed in the chemical quality of water samples, results suggest that secondary contamination in the home contributes to higher levels of E.coli in water from partially consumed larger water bottles or water stored in reusable containers. Families who reported cleaning large reusable water containers with soap or hot water had significantly lower E.coli (p=0.003) in their drinking water than those who rinsed with only water. Respondents viewed bottled water to be significantly safer to consume than tap water (p<0.001). On a Likert scale from 1 (low risk) to 5 (high risk), "drinking tap water in Nogales, Arizona" received an average score of 4.7, which was significantly higher than the average perceived risk of smoking (µ= 3.5, p<0.001) or of "drinking tap water in San Francisco, California" (µ= 3.4, p<0.001), and as risky as "drinking and driving" (µ= 4.8, p=1.00) and "drinking tap water in Nogales, Sonora, Mexico" (µ= 4.8, p=1.00). Additionally, 98% (88/90) of respondents feared that drinking local tap water could result in illness. The majority of respondents (79%, 71/90) did not drink their tap water because of fear of contamination and would drink their tap water if they knew it was safe, regardless of the taste (73%, 66/90).Fluoride was detected in 53% (16/30) of tap-water samples and only in one bottled-water sample. However, only 27% (8/30) of tap-water samples had fluoride levels within the recommended range (0.7-1.2 mg/L) by the American Dental Association for optimally fluoridated water. From multiple logistic regression, children in a household were less likely to have cavities if their parents reported using fluoridated mouthwash (p<0.001) or visited the dentist yearly (p<0.001). None of the participants reported discussing the type of water they drank or fluoride supplementation with any healthcare providers. Results suggest that secondary contamination in the home is contributing to significantly higher levels of bacteria in vended water stored in reusable containers. In addition, fear of illness from contamination of tap water is an important contributing factor to increased use of bottled water. Interventions could be developed to educate families about how to keep their reusable water containers clean, reduce perceived risks associated with tap-water consumption, and emphasize the importance of fluoride supplementation if families continue drinking bottled water.

This thesis paper explores how various actors gathered around bottled water when a ban was put into place in Concord, Massachusetts. The objective has been to answer the following questions: How does an apolitical commodity become a political one? Specifically, how does bottled water move from being an apolitical commodity to become a highly political one? What does this mean for environmental politics? I situate my theoretical approach within Martha Kaplan’s research with fountains and coolers. I use Bruno Latour to show in which ways this ban became a matter of concern, as well as how the ban and the plastic bottle are actors. I conducted fieldwork in Concord and I interviewed participants. My findings reveal that the ban brought meanings to the surface and challenged them or supported them in various ways. The discussions turned from the impact of bottled water on our environment to the political impact of bottled water companies and large corporations on local Concord issues.