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A model to determine the time to the End of Functional Service Life (EFSL) for concrete bridge decks in Virginia was developed. The service life of Virginia bridge decks is controlled by chloride-induced corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Monte Carlo resampling techniques were used to integrate the statistical nature of the input variables into the model. This is an improvement on previous deterministic models in that the effect of highly variable input parameters is reflected in the service life estimations. The model predicts the time required for corrosion to initiate on 2% of the reinforcing steel in a bridge deck and then a corrosion propagation time period, determined from empirical data, is added to estimate the EFSL for a given bridge deck or set of bridge decks. Data from 36 Virginia bridge decks was collected in order to validate the service life model as well as to investigate the effect of bridge deck construction specification changes. The bridge decks were separated into three distinct groups: 10 bare steel reinforcement decks â 0.47 water/cement (w/c), 16 Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement (ECR) decks â 0.45 w/c, and 10 ECR decks â 0.45 w/(c+pozzolan). Using chloride titration data and cover depth measurements from the sampled bridge decks and chloride corrosion initiation values determined from the literature for bare steel, service life estimates were made for the three sets of bridge decks. The influence of the epoxy coating on corrosion initiation was disregarded in order to allow direct comparisons between the three sets as well as to provide conservative service life estimates. The model was validated by comparing measured deterioration values for the bare steel decks to the estimated values from the model. A comparison was then made between the three bridge deck sets and it was determined that bridge decks constructed with a 0.45 w/(c+p) will provide the longest service life followed by the 0.47 w/c decks and the 0.45 w/c decks, respectively. From this it can be inferred that the addition of pozzolan to the concrete mix will improve the long-term durability of a bridge deck while a reduction in w/c appears to be of no benefit. / Ph. D.

A fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite cellular deck system was used to rehabilitate a historical cast iron thru-truss structure (Hawthorne St. Bridge in Covington, Virginia). This research seeks to address following technical needs and questions to advance FRP deck application. The critical panel-to-panel connections were developed and evolved through a four-stage study and finally realized using full width, adhesively bonded tongue and groove splices with scarfed edges. Extensive experimental study under service, strength and fatigue loads in a full-scale two-bay mock-up test and a field test was performed. Test results showed that no crack initiated in the joints under service load and no significant change in stiffness or strength of the joint occurred after 3,000,000 cycles of fatigue loading. Various issues related to constructability of FRP deck systems were investigated and construction guidelines and installation procedures for the deck system were established. The structural performance of the FRP-on-steel-superstructure system was examined in the laboratory and field under service load. Tests results confirmed the following findings: (1) the clip-type of panel-to-stringer connection provides little composite action as expected, which fulfilled the design intention; (2) local effects play an important role in the performance of FRP deck; (3) the FRP deck design is stiffness driven rather than strength driven like traditional concrete deck. Finally, an FEM parametric study was conducted to examine two important design issues concerning the FRP decks, namely deck relative deflection and LDF of supporting steel girders. Results from both FEM and experiments show that the strip method specified in AASHTO LRFD specification (AASHTO 2004) as an approximate method of analysis can also be applied to unconventional FRP decks as a practical method. However, different strip width equations have to be determined by either FEM or experimental methods for different types of FRP decks. In this study, one such an equation has been derived for the Strongwell deck. In addition, the AASHTO LDF equations for glued laminated timber decks on steel stringers provide good estimations of LDFs for FRP-deck-on-steel-girder bridges. The lever rule can be used as an appropriately conservative design method to predict the LDFs of FRP-deck-on-steel-girder bridges. / Ph. D.

Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are considered very promising for infrastructure applications such as repair, rehabilitation and replacement of deteriorated bridge decks. However, there is lack of proper understanding of the structural behavior of FRP decks. For example, due to the localization of load under a truck tire, the conventionally used uniform patch loading is not suitable for performance evaluation of FRP composite deck systems with cellular geometry and relatively low modulus (compared to concrete decks). In this current study, a simulated tire patch loading profile has been proposed for testing and analysis of FRP deck. The tire patch produced significantly different failure mode (local transverse failure under the tire patch) compared to the punching-shear mode obtained using the conventional rectangular steel plate. The local response of a cellular FRP composite deck has been analyzed using finite element simulation and results are compared with full scale laboratory experiment of bridge deck and structure. Parametric studies show that design criteria based on global deck displacement is inadequate for cellular FRP deck and local deformation behavior must be considered. The adhesive bonding method is implemented for joining of bridge deck panels and response of structural joint analyzed experimentally. Strength, failure mode and fatigue life prediction methodologies for a cellular FRP bridge deck are presented in this dissertation. / Ph. D.

Corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete is a significant problem around the world. In the United States, there are approximately 600,000 bridges. From those bridges 24% are considered structurally deficient or functionally obsolete based on the latest, December 2010, statistic from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Mainly, this is due to chloride attack present in deicing salts which causes the reinforcing steel to corrode. Different solutions have been developed and used in practice to delay and prevent corrosion initiation. The purpose of this research is to investigate the influence of corrosion on the failure mechanism that occurred on an Interstate 81 bridge deck. After 17 years in service, a 3ft x3ft closure pour section punched through. It was part of the left wheel path of the south bound right lane of the bridge deck. The bridge deck was replaced in 1992 as part of a bridge rehabilitation project, epoxy coated reinforcement were used as the reinforcing steel. Four slabs from the bridge deck, containing the closure, were removed and transported to the Virginia Tech Structures and Materials Research Laboratory for further evaluation. Also, three lab cast slabs were fabricated as part of the assessment program. Corrosion evaluation and concrete shrinkage characterization were conducted in this research. The corrosion evaluation study included visual observation, clear concrete cover depth, concrete resistivity using single point resistivity, half-cell potential, and linear polarization using the 3LP device. Shrinkage characteristics were conducted on the lab cast slabs only, which consisted of monitoring shrinkage behavior of the specimens for 180 days and comparison of the data with five different shrinkage models. Based on the research results, guidance for assessment of other bridge decks with similar conditions will be constructed to avoid similar types of failures in the future. / Master of Science

This thesis addresses the experimental and numerical study of vibration-based damage detection (VBDD) techniques in structural health monitoring (SHM) of bridge superstructures. The primary goal of SHM is to ascertain the condition or health of a structure so that decisions can be made with regard to the need for remediation. VBDD techniques are global non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques. The principle of VBDD techniques is to detect damage using changes in the dynamic characteristics of a structure caused by the damage. The advantage of VBDD techniques over local NDE techniques is that VBDD techniques can assess the condition of an entire structure at once and are not limited to accessible components. <p>Well controlled laboratory experiments on a half-scale, simply supported steel-free bridge deck and two full-scale, simply supported prestressed concrete girders demonstrated that small scale damage at different locations can be reliably detected and located by VBDD techniques using a relatively small number of sensors (accelerometers or strain gauges) and considering changes to only the fundamental mode of vibration. The resolution of damage localization, defined as the length of the window within which damage could be located when the technique predicts it to be located at a particular point, was 70% of measurement point spacing for the deck and 82% for the girders, provided the damage was not located too close to a simple support.<p>To establish the potential of VBDD techniques in the absence of experimental uncertainty, eigenvalue analyses using finite element models of the deck and the girders were undertaken to investigate ability of five VBDD methods to predict the longitudinal location of damage. It was found that when mode shapes were well-defined with a large number of measurement points, the damage location could be determined with great accuracy using any of the five VBDD techniques investigated. The resolution of longitudinal localization of damage was 40 to 80% of the spacing between measurement points when small numbers of measurement points were used, provided the damage was not located too close to a simple support.<p>The experimental study successfully detected small scale damage under forced resonant harmonic excitation but failed in detecting damage under forced random excitation, although the use of random sources of excitation is more practical in field testing. Transient dynamic analyses on the finite element model of the steel-free bridge deck were performed to investigate the implications of using random forced vibrations to characterize mode shapes to be used to detect damage. It was found that the probability of successful damage localization depends upon the severity of the damage, the number of trials used to obtain the average mode shape, the location of damage relative to the nearest sensor, the distance between the damage and the support, and the magnitude of measurement errors. A method based on the repeatability of measured mode shapes is proposed to calculate the probability of successful damage detection and localization.<p>In summary, results of this research demonstrate that VBDD techniques are a promising tool for structural health monitoring of bridge superstructures. However, although these methods have been shown to be capable of effectively detecting small scale damage under well controlled conditions, a significant amount of challenging work remains to be done before they can be applied to real structures.

This thesis addresses the experimental and numerical study of vibration-based damage detection (VBDD) techniques in structural health monitoring (SHM) of bridge superstructures. The primary goal of SHM is to ascertain the condition or health of a structure so that decisions can be made with regard to the need for remediation. VBDD techniques are global non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques. The principle of VBDD techniques is to detect damage using changes in the dynamic characteristics of a structure caused by the damage. The advantage of VBDD techniques over local NDE techniques is that VBDD techniques can assess the condition of an entire structure at once and are not limited to accessible components. <p>Well controlled laboratory experiments on a half-scale, simply supported steel-free bridge deck and two full-scale, simply supported prestressed concrete girders demonstrated that small scale damage at different locations can be reliably detected and located by VBDD techniques using a relatively small number of sensors (accelerometers or strain gauges) and considering changes to only the fundamental mode of vibration. The resolution of damage localization, defined as the length of the window within which damage could be located when the technique predicts it to be located at a particular point, was 70% of measurement point spacing for the deck and 82% for the girders, provided the damage was not located too close to a simple support.<p>To establish the potential of VBDD techniques in the absence of experimental uncertainty, eigenvalue analyses using finite element models of the deck and the girders were undertaken to investigate ability of five VBDD methods to predict the longitudinal location of damage. It was found that when mode shapes were well-defined with a large number of measurement points, the damage location could be determined with great accuracy using any of the five VBDD techniques investigated. The resolution of longitudinal localization of damage was 40 to 80% of the spacing between measurement points when small numbers of measurement points were used, provided the damage was not located too close to a simple support.<p>The experimental study successfully detected small scale damage under forced resonant harmonic excitation but failed in detecting damage under forced random excitation, although the use of random sources of excitation is more practical in field testing. Transient dynamic analyses on the finite element model of the steel-free bridge deck were performed to investigate the implications of using random forced vibrations to characterize mode shapes to be used to detect damage. It was found that the probability of successful damage localization depends upon the severity of the damage, the number of trials used to obtain the average mode shape, the location of damage relative to the nearest sensor, the distance between the damage and the support, and the magnitude of measurement errors. A method based on the repeatability of measured mode shapes is proposed to calculate the probability of successful damage detection and localization.<p>In summary, results of this research demonstrate that VBDD techniques are a promising tool for structural health monitoring of bridge superstructures. However, although these methods have been shown to be capable of effectively detecting small scale damage under well controlled conditions, a significant amount of challenging work remains to be done before they can be applied to real structures.

Precast, prestressed concrete panels (PCPs) have been widely used in Texas as stay-in-place formwork in bridge deck construction. Although PCPs are widely popular and extensively used, Texas is experiencing problems with collinear cracks (cracks along the strands) in panels. One reason for the formation of collinear cracks is thought to be the required level of initial prestress. Currently, PCPs are designed assuming a 45-ksi, lump-sum prestress loss. If the prestress losses are demonstrated to be lower than this value, this could justify the use of a lower initial prestress, probably resulting in fewer collinear cracks. For this purpose, 20 precast, prestressed panels were cast at two different plants. Half of those 20 panels were fabricated with the current TxDOT-required prestress of 16.1 kips per strand, and the other half were fabricated with a lower prestress of 14.4 kips per strand based on initially observed prestress losses of 25 ksi or less. Thirteen of those panels were instrumented with strain gages and monitored over their life time. Observed losses stabilized after five months, and are found to be about 24.4 ksi. Even with the reduced initial prestress, the remaining prestress in all panels exceeds the value now assumed by TxDOT for design. / text

In this thesis, several aspects of GPR data processing for RC bridge decks are studied. First, autofocusing techniques are proposed to replace the previous expensive and unreliable human visual inspections during the iterative migration process for the estimation of the velocity/dielectric permittivity distribution from GPR data. Second, F-K filtering with dip relaxation is proposed for interference removal that is important for both imaging and the performance of post-processing techniques including autofocusing techniques and CS-based migration studied in this thesis. The targeted interferes here are direct waves and cross rebar reflections. The introduced dip relaxation is for accommodating surface roughness and medium inhomogeneity. Third, the newly developed CS-based migration is modified and evaluated on GPR data from RC bridge decks. A more accurate model by accounting for impulse waveform distortion that leads to less modeling errors is proposed. The impact of the selection of the regularization parameter on the comparative amplitude reservation and the imaging performance is also investigated, and an approach to preserve the comparative amplitude information while still maintaining a clear image is proposed. Moreover, the potential of initially sampling the time-spatial data with uniform sampling rates lower than that required by traditional migration methods is evaluated.