「透過會計，加強管理」是發揮會計管理功能的極致。本文除緒論與結論兩章外，事實上包括上下兩篇。上篇包括第二章與第三章，旨在說明會計與管理之關係。無疑的，會計是提供管理上決策所需情報的來源所在。下篇如何透過會計以加強管理，實際上包括會計報表分析與預算管理兩大主題，由分析以診知金業健康程度，進而利用預算制度以規劃利潤，斯為發揮會計管理功能的重要程序。雖然會計報表分析與預算管理均可單獨運用，不過若只有分析而不進一步將分析所得結果運用預算加以規劃利潤，則分析之效果不張，只採用預算面未對目前情況加以分析，則預算之運用沒有根據，兩者結合運用，則對管理之貢獻將有如虎添翼之功用。 第一章緒論：旨在說明研究動機及其內容簡介。筆者昔日初學會計，對「透過會計，加強管理」一詞不明其義，為謀求知識慾望之滿足並對會計功能之演變如以探討，初萌撰寫動機，並為喚起企業人士看重會計之管理功能及幫助其謀求管理功能之發揮，終有撰寫本文之志。本文內容計： 第二章：會計的意義、功能與特徵：會計是企業的語言，也是經營活動的報導工具與輔助管理的利器，其功能計有對外之財務報導功能與對內之積極輔助管理功能，後者即為本文立論之重點所在。事實上，會計僅為一管理工具而非管理本身。 第三章，會計與管理，管理的本質為下決策，決策有賴情報，會計固然為一重要情報來源，然而，管理情報系統風行全球之際，會計無異站在徘徊的十字路口，到底會計應往何處去，目前尚無定論。不過無可置疑的，只要會計欲有助於管理，則會計應往配合管理需要的途徑邁進！ 第四章：會計報表分析，又名企業生理分析，旨在分析企業健康與否並指示企業應有的發展途徑，以助管理功能之發揮，其法是經由檢診病態、調查病歷、研究病理、斷定病症、開方配樂等步驟以分析企業健康情況。 第五章：預算管理(Budgeting)泛論，旨在對利潤的規劃與控制之意義及其趨勢，優劣、特徵及其與管理之關係等加以闡述，以利潤為重心配合預算之運用是現階段預算管理之發展趨勢，惟任何工具有其利必有其弊，預算管理豈能免哉！而事實上管理的任何功能均能從預算管理上發揮之，故預算管理實為管理之利器也。 第六章：利潤的規劃，根據會計報表分析所得，擬訂企業利潤目標，期透過預算之實施以達成之，斯為利潤規劃之重點所在。 第七章：利潤的控制。控制應有目標，將目標與實際績效加以此較，求出差異所左。進而探求差異原因並迅速採取改正行動，追蹤改正行動的效果並回資(Feed-Back)情報以供未來參考是為控制之要義。利潤之控制即以預算篇目標並進而確保其達致是也。 第八章結論：任何企業，其基本任務不外乎保本與求利，前者為消極任務，後者為積極任務，而會計就是對此兩大任務之達成所做之報導與輔助的工具；以管理程序—思、行、考(Plan, Do, See)為本，透過報表分析，進而規劃應有之利潤目標並積極達成之，此即為「透過會計，加強管理」之精髓所在。

<p>Datum: 2010-06-03</p><p>Nivå: Magisteruppsats i företagsekonomi, 15 hp</p><p>Författare: Sanne Jotorp, Emelie Strandh och Katrin Wilhelmsson</p><p>Handledare: Esbjörn Segelod</p><p>Titel: Budgetlös styrning - Har Wallanders budgetlösa styrning stått sig oförändrad inärmare 40 år och har den varit ett vinnande koncept till framgång?</p><p>Syfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka huruvida Handelsbankens budgetlösa styrning utvecklats sedan införandet för nästan 40 år sedan samt att studera om bankens framgång grundar sig på den budgetlösa styrningen.</p><p>Metod: Undersökningen har formen av en fallstudie med en kvalitativ undersökningsmetodik har använts. Den teoretiska referensramen bygger på en litteraturstudie och empirin grundar sig på semistrukturerade intervjuer med två utvalda respondenter.</p><p>Slutsats: Handelsbanken har sedan Wallanders tid varit den mest lönsamma banken i Sverige och varje år haft en högre räntabilitet än genomsnittet för konkurrenterna. Denna framgång har sin grund i en kombination av en decentraliserad organisationsstruktur och den flexibilitet, frihet och anpassningsförmåga som den budgetlösa styrningen innebär. Decentraliseringen har inneburit att beslutsfattandet flyttats nedåt iorganisationen, vilket medför snabbare beslut och bättre kundkännedom. Decentraliseringen medför även en känsla av frihet och ett engagemang hos de anställda och det leder till kostnadsmedvetenhet. Styrningen skapar en miljö av frihet där innovativa strategier kan växa fram. Den budgetlösa styrningens flexibilitet har resulterat i att banken kunnat anpassa sig snabbare än konkurrenterna och därför kunnat återhämta sig fortare under år av kris och förändring. Decentralisering och budgetlös styrning är beroende av varandra för att vara så effektivt som möjligt. Decentralisering är en förutsättning för den budgetlösa styrningen och utan den radikala decentralisering som Wallander genomförde hade troligtvis den budgetlösa styrningen aldrig blivit lyckad. Likväl hade en decentralisering inte fått samma effekt om den traditionella budgetstyrningen vidhållits.</p> / <p>Date: 2010-06-03</p><p>Level: Master thesis in Business Administration, 15 credits</p><p>Authors: Sanne Jotorp, Emelie Strandh and Katrin Wilhelmsson</p><p>Tutor: Esbjörn Segelod</p><p>Title: Beyond budgeting – Has Wallander’s beyond budgeting control not changed incloser to 40 years and has it been a winning concept for success?</p><p>Background: In the beginning of the 1970’s Handelsbankens new CEO Jan Wallander removed the budgeting control of Handelsbanken. He decentralized the organization and implemented the beyond budgeting control.</p><p>Purpose: The purpose of the essay is to examine whether Handelsbankens beyond budgeting control has developed since the phase out of budgetary control and study if the banks success is based on the beyond budgeting control.</p><p>Method: The essay has the form of a case study and a qualitative study method has been used. The theoretical reference frame is established on a scholarly literature study and the empirical material is based on semi structured interviews with two respondents.</p><p>Conclusion: Handelsbanken has since the time of Wallander been the most profitable bank in Sweden and has presented a higher return on equity than the average of its rivals each year. The success is a combination of a decentralized organization and the flexibility, freedom and adaptability that a beyond budgeting control means. The decentralization has meant that the decision making has moved downwards in the organization, which has lead to faster decisions and a better knowledge of the customer. The decentralization also brings out a feeling offreedom and a commitment in the employees and that leads to cost-awareness. The beyond budgeting control creates an environment of freedom where innovative strategies can develop. The flexibility in the beyond budgeting control has resulted in that the bank can adapt faster than the other banks and thereby come back faster from crisis and change. Decentralization and beyond budgeting control is dependent of each other to be as effective as possible. This comes of the fact that decentralization is a presumption for the beyond budgeting control to work and without de radical decentralization that Wallander implemented the beyond budgeting control never had been successful. However had the decentralization never given the same effect if the traditional budgeting control had been kept.</p>

The aim of this study is to investigate how companies within different industries that use budgets perceive the critique that has been raised against it. As such, this study explores whether the companies find the critique valid and if so, whether and how they have managed to cope with the problems that the budget has been argued to entail. Additionally, this study explores the potential impact that the external and internal context of the budget may have on these perceptions. Utilizing on a qualitative case study research design, our findings indicate that the relevance of the critique is contextually contingent with regards to both the external and the internal environment of a company. Consequently, the likelihood for the alleged problems of the budget to appear is greater when the alignment between a company’s external and internal environment and the employed budget purpose is poor, and/or when the budget’s cohesiveness with other management control systems within a certain management control system-package is deficient. Thus, in contrast to the critics, we argue that budgets should not be seen as a static and stand-alone practice as it evidently constitute a multifaceted and contingent practice.

Since 1993, the Private Finance Initiative (PFI) has been the dominant form of large-scale infrastructure procurement used by National Health Service (NHS) organisations in the United Kingdom. As of April 2011, 123 PFI projects for new hospital facilities had been agreed between NHS organisations and private sector consortia, representing privately financed investment of £15.9 billion (in 2010 prices), and a projected long-term cost to the NHS of £70.5 billion. Eight additional hospital PFI schemes were being procured or prepared for tender as of April 2011, with an estimated capital investment value of £2 billion. Despite the financial significance of PFI projects to the NHS, the literature has not assessed whether, or the extent to which, the returns expected by investors are excessive. This gap in the evidence base is highly problematic. The presence of excess returns to investors will have an impact on the cost efficiency and affordability of PFI projects, and consequently the financial sustainability of the NHS organisations that pay for them. This thesis evaluates the returns that investors in NHS-commissioned PFI projects expect to earn with reference to the scale of risk being borne by these investors, and explores the sources of the identified excess via an examination of the structure and competitiveness of the PFI financing markets. The study therefore comprises two substantial empirical components. The first draws on the financial models of 11 NHS PFI projects to describe and evaluate the return to investors. Cost of capital benchmarks, constructed on the basis of the Capital Asset Pricing Model, are used as comparators to assess the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) for the 11 projects, and as discount rates to calculate Benefit-Cost Ratios. Both measures agree on the presence of significant excess returns for investors on each project – with large “spreads” between the IRRs and the corresponding cost of capital benchmarks, and high Benefit-Cost Ratio scores. The second empirical component provides an analysis of the structure and competitiveness of the market for private finance. Two indicators of this market’s structure – concentration and entry/exit rates – in addition to the dynamics of the procurement process are the focus of measurement and evaluation. It is demonstrated that: (a) the market for private finance in this sector is an oligopoly, (b) market share is highly concentrated when assessed against UK regulatory standards, and (c) churn and market penetration rates are extremely low. Constraints on the competitiveness of the market are identified as: (i) the low number of bidders; and (ii) the extensive period of non-competitive bidding in the final phase of the procurement process, in which the output specifications of projects are materially altered. The thesis concludes that recent reforms to the procurement process have been ineffective, and the problems underpinning a lack of competitive pressure in procurement may be insuperable, given the inherent complexity of this form of investment and the need to secure external financing. For the NHS, this source of cost inefficiency implies substantial opportunity costs (i.e. foregone opportunities for additional capital investment) and excess costs (i.e. a higher than necessary burden on the revenue budget). A stronger regulatory regime, incorporating regulation of the profitability of PFI projects for investors, is required to minimise the threat posed by this policy to the financial sustainability of the NHS.

The purpose of this research is to study and improve decision accuracy in the real world. Spot price prediction of petroleum products, in a budgeting context, is the task chosen to study prediction accuracy. Prediction accuracy of executives in a multinational oil company is examined. The Brunswik Lens Model framework is used to evaluate prediction accuracy. Predictions of the individuals, the composite group (mathematical average of the individuals), the interacting group, and the environmental model were compared. Predictions of the individuals were obtained through a laboratory experiment in which experts were used as subjects. The subjects were required to make spot price predictions for two petroleum products. Eight predictor variables that were actually used by the subjects in real-world predictions were elicited through an interview process. Data for a 15 month period were used to construct 31 cases for each of the two products. Prediction accuracy was evaluated by comparing predictions with the actual spot prices. Predictions of the composite group were obtained by averaging the predictions of the individuals. Interacting group predictions were obtained ex post from the company's records. The study found the interacting group to be the least accurate. The implication of this finding is that even though an interacting group may be desirable for information synthesis, evaluation, or working toward group consensus, it is undesirable if prediction accuracy is critical. The accuracy of the environmental model was found to be the highest. This suggests that apart from random error, misweighting of cues by individuals and groups affects prediction accuracy. Another implication of this study is that the environmental model can also be used as an additional input in the prediction process to improve accuracy.

Since the development and implementation of Participatory Budgeting (PB) as a democratic process adhering to civic improvement demands through municipal budget allocations, it promised great potential as a governance tool. Its core intentions are inclusion, participation and the redistribution of wealth to serve vulnerable members of society. Since India has the second greatest unequal wealth distribution in the world, the implementation of PB seemed promising. Surprisingly, however, Pune is currently the only city with an actively utilized PB mechanism, which indicates various inefficiencies, discrepancies and intentional dualities, resulting in exclusion, low participation and the misappropriation of resources. The purpose and intentions of PB are therefore ultimately reversed, however still it is still labeled as PB due to the lack of a standardized and recognized PB definition. This study utilizes in-depth interviews and data sources provided by various members of the two Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) currently or previously active in PB in Pune. The outcome is a clear depiction of the NGO perspective upon the core intentions of PB, identifying two main hurdles to participation, which remains unattested due to a lack of governmental will. Contributions are made through the development of a definition, the expansion of existing participation theory in the unique context of governmental resistance in a developing country and practical recommendations for the city of Pune.

This thesis describes in depth what the steps for a successful business project are: from an idea to its implementation. Every business project may be regarded as an investment. I followed the institutions involved and then the instruments needed, but the next logical step in order to complete the picture would be the human factor. Because all the knowledge base on how to support the mission (idea and its goal), how to manage the project, and what kind of players to involve in the end is executed by people. Humans are incapable of predicting the future, but are perfect in adapting to new realities. Similarly, no capital budget can be perfectly coinciding with expected performance. No matter how many times the facts are checked the perfect balance is lost with time. My goal with this topic was to show that in order to bring business value and competitive advantage, good knowledge of the processes and methods is paramount. Careful planning and execution can bring in synchrony idea, raising capital, risk management, capital budgeting and execution close enough, so that in the end a business project may be titled successful.

A research report submitted to the faculty of commerce of the University of the Witwatersrand in part completion of the degree of Master of commerce, by coursework / No abstract

Em finanças corporativas e em análises tradicionais de projetos, os modelos de fluxo de caixa descontado têm prevalecido como a estrutura básica para a grande maioria das análises de geração de valor para as empresas. A evolução da teoria de precificação de opções, contudo, adicionou às teorias e práticas usuais de finanças um novo conjunto de ferramentas necessárias para gerenciar e explorar o valor advindo da incerteza e da volatilidade, que ampliam os parâmetros da geração de valor ao acrescentarem os conceitos da flexibilidade gerencial. Dentro deste contexto, o presente trabalho buscou pesquisar e apresentar a metodologia de avaliação de investimentos em ativos reais com base na teoria de precificação de opções ("opções reais"), suas características, limitações e aplicações em ambientes empresariais caracterizados pela alta volatilidade econômica. Neste sentido, a pesquisa inicia-se com a revisão bibliográfica das diversas teorias utilizadas para a avaliação de projetos de investimento, visando apresentá-las desde sua forma mais básica até os principais métodos mais sofisticados e recentes, cujo escopo incorpora conceitos como o valor do dinheiro no tempo e risco. Finalmente, a título de se demonstrar a aplicabilidade dos métodos apresentados, um exercício teórico simulando um caso real é desenvolvido, levando em consideração um ambiente considerado de grande volatilidade, analisando-se as oportunidades que a metodologia de opções reais pode proporcionar. Como resultado desse trabalho, conclui-se que a análise de opções reais pode ser uma alternativa viável e preferencial às metodologias tradicionais, quando inserida num ambiente de grandes incertezas e flexibilidade gerencial, tal como o ambiente geral que caracteriza a América Latina. / In corporate finance and traditional capital budgeting, discounted cash flow methods have prevailed as the basic structure in most approaches to investment and shareholder value analysis. The evolution of the option pricing theory, however, has added a whole new set of tools to the traditional group of theories and practices, necessary to the good management and exploitation of the value from uncertainty and volatility. These tools broaden the value generation parameters by adding the managerial flexibility and uncertainty concepts. Amid this overall context, the present work has tried to research and present the real asset investment analysis methodology based on the option pricing theory (real options), its characteristics, limitations and applications in business environments characterized by high economic volatility. Therefore, this study begins with the review of several theories used in capital budgeting, aiming to present them from their most basic form, up to the main, most sophisticated and recent methods, which include concepts like time value of the money and risk. Finally, in order to demonstrate the applicability of the methods discussed, a theoretical exercise, which simulates a real case, is developed, considering an environment of high volatility, analyzing the opportunities that the real options theory may grant. As a result of this study, it is concluded that the real options analysis may be a viable and preferable alternative if compared to traditional methodologies, when used in an uncertain environment, in association with managerial flexibility, like the general environment that characterizes the Latin America region.

A superação do regime autoritário no Brasil implicou novas formas de democratização da política e de suas instituições, ao mesmo tempo em que a dinâmica federativa foi modificada mediante o fortalecimento institucional e tributário dos municípios. O Orçamento Participativo e a gestão descentralizada de políticas públicas de saúde constituem experiências das mais significativas deste novo cenário caracterizado pela assunção de novas responsabilidades pelos níveis subnacionais de governo. A abordagem comparada destes experimentos, protagonizados por diferentes coalizões partidárias, permite um exame de suas potencialidades e limites à luz de uma concepção procedimental da democracia e do caráter complementar da participação. Em contraponto à primazia da representação, a análise problematiza o alcance das ações da nova sociedade civil da perspectiva de democratização dos processos decisórios no âmbito do Poder Local. / The ending of authoritarian regime in Brazil resulted in new forms of democratization of the politics and its institutions, at the same time that the federative dynamics was changing through the institutional and tributary strength at the municipal districts. The Participatory Budgeting and the decentralized public administration of the public health politics are the most important experiences of this new way characterized by the assumption of the new responsibilities by the local governments. The comparative approach of these experiences, conducted from different party coalitions, allows a test of their powers and limits from a conception of the democracy as a procedure and the complementary character of the participation. In contrast to priority representation, the analysis discusses the range of the new civil society actions from the perspective of the democratization's process in the scope of the Local Government.