In recent years, research on embodied cognition has inspired a number of studies on multimedia learning and instructional psychology. However, in contrast to traditional research on education and multimedia learning, studies on embodied learning (i.e., focusing on bodily action and perception in the context of education) in some cases pose new problems for the measurement of cognitive load. This review provides an overview over recent studies on embodied learning in which cognitive load was measured using surveys, behavioral data, or physiological measures. The different methods are assessed in terms of their success in finding differences of cognitive load in embodied learning scenarios. At the same time, we highlight the most important challenges for researchers aiming to include these measures into their study designs. The main issues we identified are: (1) Subjective measures must be appropriately phrased to be useful for embodied learning; (2) recent findings indicate potentials as well as problematic aspects of dual-task measures; (3) the use of physiological measures offers great potential, but may require mobile equipment in the context of embodied scenarios; (4) meta-cognitive measures can be useful extensions of cognitive load measurement for embodied learning.

This qualitative, exploratory dissertation aimed to describe how accessibility, usability, and cognitive load experts explained and experienced the usability and accessibility aspects of the LT department's website pages, information, and digital links. A usability, accessibility, and cognitive load manual examination was conducted with four experts. The usability, accessibility, and cognitive load examination comprised WCAG 2.1 four standards and Nielsen's 10 usability heuristics. Transcripts and observational field notes were coded through an iterative process in the analysis tool Dedoose. Two groups and four main categories were discovered using emic and etic coding. The two groups were macro challenges and page with most codes. The four main categories included macro, usability, accessibility, and cognitive load. The findings for accessibility, usability, and cognitive load are discussed. Website recommendations for creating an accessible and usable site and suggestions for future research are provided.

The purpose of the research was to investigate the effectiveness of using multimedia as a means of teaching physical science to learners. The underlying theoretical assumption was that a multimedia presentation would help to reduce the cognitive load experienced by learners when they learn physical science content, compared to a traditional mode of presentation, and that this reduction may have a positive effect on the ease with which they master the content. Physical science learners in Grade 11 viewed a presentation consisting of multimedia screens and screens depicting the learning content in a traditional layout – in order to compare the level of knowledge gained as well as the cognitive load experienced for the multimedia and traditional instructions. Pre- and post-test questionnaires were used to determine the knowledge gained, while cognitive load was measured using a dual-task methodology. A multivariate analysis of variance was used to analyse the data. The results did not reveal a statistically significant increase in knowledge gained via the multimedia approach when compared to the traditional mode of instruction, but when focussing the analysis on learners with a lower-knowledge base in physical science though, statistically significant results were found. However, no significant results were found to support the hypothesis that multimedia would help to reduce learners’ cognitive load. It was concluded that the multimedia design principles are more effective in increasing knowledge for physical science learners of low-knowledge than traditional instructional designs. / Psychology / M.Sc. (Psychology)

The aim of the study was to compare the effects of the use of interactive computer simulations for cognitive load change of grade 11 learners in the acquisition of knowledge and a science process skill in geometrical optics. Both the use of computer simulations and traditional teaching was teacher centred. The study was done in a rural area in South Africa, in the Limpopo Province in the district of Vhembe. The theoretical framework was based on the information processing model. Within the non-equivalent quasi experimental design a switching replications design study was used whereby 105 learners in four schools took part. This study found that in terms of the acquisition of knowledge, female learners gained more by the use of simulations than their male counterparts. No significant effect was found in the acquisition of the skill when computer simulations were used. Initial reduction of cognitive load was found when simulations were used and with time this increased. Experienced educators reduced the cognitive load through use of their knowledge and expertise and their role needs to be highlighted. Further studies are suggested to study the effect of a learner centred approach on decreasing the cognitive load and its effect on the acquisition of knowledge and skills. / Mathematics, Science and Technology Education / D. Phil. (Mathematics, Science and Technology Education with specialisation in Physics Education)

This study investigated the effects of Augmented Reality (AR) on learning, cognitive load and spatial abilities. More specifically, it measured learning gains, perceived cognitive load, and the role spatial abilities play with students engaged in an astronomy lesson about lunar phases. Research participants were 182 students from a public university in southeastern United States, and were recruited from psychology research pool. Participants were randomly assigned to two groups: (a) Augmented Reality and Text Astronomy Treatment (ARTAT); and (b) Images and Text Astronomy Treatment (ITAT). Upon entering the experimental classroom, participants were given (a) Paper Folding Test to measure their spatial abilities; (b) the Lunar Phases Concept Inventory (LPCI) pre-test; (c) lesson on Lunar Phases; (d) NASA-TLX to measure participants’ cognitive load; and (e) LPCI post-test. Statistical analysis found (a) no statistical difference for learning gains between the ARTAT and ITAT groups; (b) statistically significant difference for cognitive load; and (c) no significant difference for spatial abilities scores.

When the target of a reaching movement is displaced suddenly, people update their movement to take account of the jump, correcting their trajectory online to end the movement at the new target location. These corrections are initiated too rapidly to be conscious, and occur when they are uninstructed (Pisella et al., 2000) or the participant is unaware of the change in location (Goodale et al., 1986). These findings have been taken as evidence that fast corrections occur automatically, and the spatial updating of reach trajectories has become known as the ‘automatic pilot’ (Pisella et al., 2000). This thesis set out to investigate the cognitive, attentional and neurological aspects of the automatic pilot, in three series of related experiments, all employing a double-step reaching task. Experiments 1 - 4 investigated how strongly automatic reach corrections are, by manipulating the influence of conscious intention and cognitive load. These experiments confirmed that the automatic pilot is at most weakly automatic, as correction efficiency is enhanced by an explicit instruction to follow target jumps and, conversely, corrections can be overridden by an intention to resist them. However, voluntary inhibition of the automatic pilot can be disrupted by placing participants under heavy cognitive load, whilst voluntary enhancement is unaffected by this manipulation. Thus, voluntary suppression of the automatic pilot is effortful, but enhancement towards greater responsiveness is seemingly effortless. Experiments 5 - 8 explored the properties of the visual target displacement that drive the automatic pilot response in a double-step reaching task. These experiments demonstrate that correction efficiency is lawfully related to jump salience, but that the onset of the new target location drives correction responses more powerfully than the offset of the original target. However, the maximal correction rates obtained from a simultaneous onset and offset, were too great to be attributed simply to the additive influences of onsets and offsets. The onset and offset components of the target jump are thus synergistic. It is suggested that this reflects the contribution of an apparent motion signal induced by simultaneous onset and offsets, which strongly drives the automatic pilot system. Experiment 9 examined an asymmetry in correction efficiency, favouring rightward over leftward target jumps, evident throughout the earlier experiments. Correction efficiency was assessed for right- and left-handed participants responding to rightward and leftward target jumps. The pattern of results indicated that each hand is advantaged for responding to ipsilaterallydirected jumps, which may reflect biomechanical or hemispheric compatibility effects. However, there was also an overall differential advantage for rightward jumps, which was independent of handedness, or hand used. This suggests a left-hemispheric advantage for automatic correction behaviour, independent of handedness. Finally, Experiments 10 - 14 considered whether the automatic pilot deficit in optic ataxia is simply a manifestation of the more general misreaching deficit. Across several different target conditions, the pattern of online correction in optic ataxia refuted a simple misreaching explanation, suggesting that it is a specific functional consequence of dorsal stream damage.

Le SMS (Short Message Service) a favorisé la création d’une nouvelle forme d’écriture et offre la possibilité d’analyser de façon originale les processus généraux de la production écrite. L’étude de ces processus a permis de mettre en exergue le coût cognitif qu’ils représentent lors de leur mise en œuvre simultanée. Toutefois, si ces questions ont beaucoup été étudiées en production écrite conventionnelle, l’apparition de nouvelles formes d’écriture donnent l’occasion d’étudier l’orthographe de façon inédite. L’une des principales caractéristiques de l’écriture SMS (eSMS) est l’utilisation de formes orthographiques non conventionnelles (e.g., Slt pk tu menvoi ce mess ? Biz) qui peuvent sembler, au premier abord, plus simple et plus facile que celles de l’écriture conventionnelle. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse est donc de démontrer l’existence d’un coût cognitif de la production des processus spécifiques de l’écriture SMS chez les novices et de leur automatisation avec l’acquisition d’une expertise. Dans le cadre d’une épreuve d’écriture de SMS, nous avons fait varier, d’une part, le degré d’expertise des participants dans la pratique du SMS et, d’autre part, l’attention qu’ils pouvaient porter à cette tâche grâce à diverses variations du paradigme expérimental de la double tâche. Les résultats des différentes études expérimentales montrent que la production des processus spécifiques de l’eSMS présente un coût cognitif, comme ceux de l’écriture conventionnelle. Ce coût est particulièrement élevé chez les utilisateurs novices, et s’observe essentiellement en fin de message. Les processus spécifiques de l’eSMS s’automatisent ensuite avec l’acquisition d’une expertise. / SMS (Short Message Servicing) encourage the emergence of new writing forms and provides the opportunity to study in an original way the general processes of written production. The study of these processes allowed the highlighting of cognitive load that they represent during their simultaneous implementation. However, if these issues have been widely studied in conventional written production, appearance over the new forms of writing provide an opportunity to study spelling in a new way. One of the main characteristics of SMS writing (eSMS) is the use of unconventional orthographic forms (e.g., Slt pk tu menvoi ce mess? Biz [Hi why r u sending me this txt? Kisses]) which may seem, at first, simpler and easier than the conventional writing. The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate a cognitive load of producing specific processes of SMS writing (eSMS) for novices and their automation with the acquisition of expertise. In the context of a writing test of SMSes, we varied on the one hand the level of expertise of the participants in the use of SMS writing and, secondly, the attention they could bring to this task through a variety of changes in the experimental dual task paradigm. The results of various experimental studies support the conclusion that the production of eSMS specific processes has a cognitive load, like those of conventional writing. This cognitive load is especially high among novice users, with what is observed mainly at the end of a message. In addition, automation of these processes can be observed with the acquisition of expertise.

L'objectif de ce travail est d'étudier la compréhension et la mémorisation de plusieurs aspects des films sous-titrés, en relation avec le niveau de maîtrise des langues des participants. L'acquisition de vocabulaire d'une autre langue a également été évaluée, selon la combinaison des langues à l'écran (dialogues et sous-titres). Trois séries d'expériences sont présentées afin d'examiner le rôle des sous-titres dans chacun de ces mécanismes. Le traitement de trois types d'information des films a été pris en compte (éléments visuels, dialogues et situation). Les résultats indiquent un rôle facilitateur des sous-titres lorsqu'ils sont nécessaires (faible maîtrise de la langue du film), ou perturbateur lorsqu'ils sont superflus. Ensuite, l'effet des sous-titres sur la mémorisation d'un film a été estimé, selon la version et le niveau de saillance des éléments testés. Les résultats indiquent un effet du type de sous-titrage sur la compréhension et la restitution des informations, en fonction de leur caractère central ou périphérique par rapport à l'intrigue. Enfin, les possibilités d'acquisition de vocabulaire sont envisagées, selon le type de sous-titres, le nombre de visionnages d'un film et une consigne dirigeant l'attention vers les dialogues. La version inversée (dialogues en L1, soustitres en L2) mène à la meilleure restitution du vocabulaire, principalement après le second visionnage de la séquence. La consigne a également un effet positif sur la restitution des mots. Les résultats sont interprétés dans le cadre des théories de l’attention et de la charge cognitive, ainsi qu'à l'aide de divers modèles de l'apprentissage multimédia. / The aim of this work is to study how different aspects of subtitled films are understood and memorised, in relation to the viewers' knowledge of the on-screen languages. Vocabulary acquisition is also evaluated, depending on the order in which the languages are presented on the screen (dialogues and subtitles). Three series of experiments are presented in order toexamine the role of subtitles in each of these three mechanisms. The processing of three dimensions of a film (visual, dialogue and situation) is evaluated, depending on the languages on the screen and the participants' knowledge of them. Results indicate a global facilitating effect of subtitles when they are necessary, as opposed to a global negative effect when they are not needed. Next, the effect of subtitles on film memorisation is examined, depending on the type of subtitling and the degree of salience of the information tested. An effect of the type of subtitles is found on comprehension and data retrieval, especially for elements that are considered most central to the plot. Finally, vocabulary acquisition possibilities are measured, depending on the type of subtitles, on the number of viewings of the film and on viewing instructions directing attention to the dialogues. The reversed version (dialogues in L1, subtitles in L2) lead to the best restitution level, particularly after the second viewing of the film. The viewing instructions also have an effect on word restitution. The results are interpreted in the light of attention and cognitive load theories, within the framework of various multimedia learning models.

Deux facteurs permettent d’augmenter la performance de détection du mensonge : (a)identifier les croyances erronées et lutter contre elles et (b) accroître les différences decomportements entre les menteurs et les personnes qui disent la vérité. Ce travail de thèse aétudié ces facteurs en lien avec les expressions faciales du mensonge. Pour ce faire, nous avonsinvestigué les croyances via l’utilisation d’un questionnaire photographique et utilisé un récitantéchronologique (narration à rebours) pour amplifier les différences de comportements(approche de la charge cognitive).Notre démarche expérimentale a questionné : (a) Les croyances les plus prégnantesrelatives aux expressions faciales du mensonge. (b) L’influence de l’expérience professionnelle,de l’enjeu du mensonge (grave ou anodin) et du comportement mensonger évalué (le sien oucelui d’autrui). (c) La pertinence de l’intensité des expressions faciales pour déceler lesmensonges lors d’un récit antéchronologique.L’ensemble de nos résultats ont mis au jour de nombreuses nouvelles croyances. Septd’entre elles étaient très partagées par les individus et cohérentes avec la vision stéréotypée dumenteur. L’expérience professionnelle, l’enjeu du mensonge et le comportement mensongerévalué ont peu modifié les croyances. Le récit antéchronologique a amplifié les différences entrementeurs et sincères ; et l’intensité des mouvements faciaux a été une mesure pertinente pourdéceler le mensonge. L’application de nos travaux est discutée. / Two factors increase the lie detection performance: (a) identify and decrease false beliefsand (b) increase behavioral differences between liars and truth-tellers. These factors were studiedin relation to facial expressions of deception in this doctoral dissertation.The present work questioned (a) The most important beliefs about facial expressions ofdeception throught the use of a photographic questionnaire (b) The influence of professionalexperience, stakes of lie (serious or trivial) and the lying behavior evaluated (his own or that ofothers) (c) The relevance of facial expressions’ intensity to detect lies in an reverse orderinstruction which was used to magnify behavioral differences (cognitive load approach).Our results highlighted many new beliefs. Seven of them were very shared by people andconsistent with the stereotypical view of the liar. Beliefs were little infuenced by professionalexperience, the stakes of lie and the evaluated behavior. The reverse order instruction amplifieddifferences between liars and truth-tellers; and the intensity of facial movements was a relevantmeasure for detecting deception. Application of our research is discussed.

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier l’effet que peuvent avoir les émotions, au travers de l’induction d’un état émotionnel, sur les capacités rédactionnelles, orthographiques et mnésiques d’enfants au sein du contexte scolaire. Plus précisément, en lien avec le modèle élaboré par Ellis et Ashbrook (Resource Allocation Model of Cognitive Interference, 1988), puis modifié par la suite par Ellis et Moore (1999), la thèse selon laquelle les ressources cognitives disponibles varieraient en fonction de l’état émotionnel du participant est défendue. L’influence des émotions (positive, négative et neutre) est testée sur les exercices de la rédaction de texte, de la dictée et sur une tâche de mesure de la mémoire de travail phonologique, auprès d’enfants de CM1 et CM2.Les résultats montrent que les émotions négatives sont responsables de variations sur la longueur des textes et sur l’utilisation du lexique dans le cadre des processus rédactionnels (expérience 1), mais aussi d’une diminution des performances en mémoire de travail phonologique (expérience 3). En revanche, l’induction d’une émotion positive ou négative est responsable d’une perturbation sur le plan des processus orthographiques résultant en une augmentation du nombre d’erreurs d’orthographe dans le cadre de l’exercice de la dictée (expérience 2). En conclusion, il est montré que les émotions peuvent avoir un effet perturbateur, parasitant sur certains processus cognitifs complexes chez l’enfant. De plus, ce travail a aussi permis d’interroger l’effet des activités scolaires sur le ressenti émotionnel des enfants de CE2 et CM2 (expérience 4). Il a ainsi été mis en évidence que selon l’âge des enfants et l’activité pratiquée (écoute d’un texte lu à l’oral et dictée), le ressenti émotionnel varie grandement, mais aussi que l’état émotionnel initial est corrélé aux performances en dictée.Finalement, les résultats sont discutés en lien avec le modèle considéré (Ellis & Moore, 1999). Des ouvertures expérimentales sont proposées afin d’améliorer les connaissances de l’effet des émotions sur les capacités de langage écrit des enfants d’âge scolaire. / The aim of this thesis was to study the effects of emotions, through the induction of an emotional state, on the writing processes, spelling performances and working memory capacities in children in school context. More specifically, in relation to the model developed by Ellis and Ashbrook (Resource Allocation Model of Cognitive Interference, 1988) and subsequently modified by Ellis and Moore (1999), the thesis that the cognitive resources available could vary depending on the emotional state of the participant was supported. The influence of emotions (positive, negative and neutral) was tested on the exercise of writing text, dictation and on phonological working memory, in 4th and 5th graders.The results showed that negative emotions were responsible for variations in the length of text and the use of vocabulary in the writing processes (experiment 1), and also of a decrease in performances in phonological working memory (Experiment 3). In contrast, the induction of a positive or negative emotion was responsible for a disturbance in terms of orthographic processes resulting in an increase in the number of spelling errors during dictation (experiment 2 ). In conclusion, it was showed that emotions could have a disruptive effect on some complex cognitive processes in children. In addition, this work also allowed questioning the effect of school activities on the affective states in 3rd and 5th graders (experiment 4). It has been shown that the affective states varies greatly according to the age of children and activity practiced (listening to a text and dictation), but also that the initial affective states were correlated with performances in dictation.