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The purpose of this qualitative, ethnographic case study was to learn the nature of the discursive practices of English learners in playground peer cultures. Additionally, it sought to understand the relationship between these practices and ideology, gender, and school performance. Three questions guided this study: (1) what is the nature of the actual discursive practices of English learners in peer culture, playground interactions? (2) how do gender and ideology play a role in children's games? and (3) what is the relationship between these discursive practices and school performance?This inquiry was conducted over ten months at a school in Northern California where four English learner second graders were observed playing each day during their lunchtime recess. Data sources included audio and video taped observations and field notes, audio taped interviews, and artifact collection. Data analysis was ongoing, characterized by member-checking, peer review, and multiple codings.The findings of this study reflected the dynamic, sophisticated nature of discursive practices which were co-constructed in peer culture settings. These practices included the exploration and explanation of new games, uses of imitative and counter-imitative behaviors, performed rule talk, integrated displays of gesture, pitch and silences, and code-switching strategies. Students employed these for a variety of purposes, including the facilitation of alignment within groups, the manipulation of social organization, the orchestration of inclusion or exclusion, and the creation of positions of power.This research also proposed a working model within which the playground became a site for the interpretive reproduction of ideologies. Students at Westside demonstrated that they had appropriated adult ideologies in creative ways. They negotiated these in their peer cultures, and preserved and transformed adult culture.Finally, this study revealed that, based on the discursive practices observed on the playground, proficiency levels and instructional goals, as determined by the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) and the state English Language Development (ELD) standards were inaccurate and underestimated student ability. Policy reform reflecting greater awareness, both of the social nature of discourse, as well as the power of peer cultures, was recommended.

Esta tesis doctoral incluye un trabajo histórico-descriptivo y etnocrítico en torno a los procesos de enculturación de la juventud. Partiendo de la idea que ha existido más de una juventud a lo largo de la historia, y a partir de una lógica transversal típicamente postmodena, se describen varias historias que se refieren a varias juventudes estableciendo, a su vez, un oportuno equilibrio genérico con el que se tiene presente la no-discriminación de la mujer en la historia. El trabajo se divide en tres partes diferenciadas de acuerdo a los tres objetivos que se desarrollan:En primer lugar, se describen los procesos de enculturación de diferentes tipologías de jóvenes a lo largo de la historia a partir de los productos culturales de cada época.En segundo lugar, se analiza el surgimiento de la cultura juvenil propiamente dicha cuando la juventud empieza a ser considerada una categoría antropológica diferenciada, creadora y consumidora de formas de vida y cultura que pueden reforzar u oponerse a los procesos tradicionales (familia y escuela) de enculturación y socialización.Por último, se estudian las subculturas juveniles actuales para desarrollar una pedagogía de la juventud que se ajuste a las necesidades de orientación teórica y socio-afectiva de las nuevas generaciones y las ayude a madurar de acuerdo a las condiciones del sistema al que pertenecen desde una perspectiva diversa y ecléctica, que haga de los comportamientos juveniles una forma civilizada de convivencia en las ciudades multiculturales del siglo XXI.El desarrollo de estos tres objetivos ha exigido la utilización de una metodología de estudio ecléctica e interdisciplinar, en la que el análisis y estudio de las producciones culturales de cada época se encuentran en la base de la elección de los modelos. Así, el uso de la literatura ha prevalecido a lo largo de la primera parte de la tesis doctoral, incluyendo diferentes géneros como la poesía, la narrativa o los ensayos filosóficos. Dado que hasta el siglo XVIII predomina un tipo de literatura en la que se exaltan las vivencias, aventuras y pasiones de personajes pertenecientes al mundo aristocrático, la juventud y los procesos de enculturación a los que nos acabamos refiriendo parten, sobre todo, de la cultura de las diferentes sociedades aristocráticas. A partir del romanticismo se abordan conflictos propios de los jóvenes y las jóvenes de la clase burguesa con los que se introducen, junto a la literatura, el uso de la ópera, entendida como manifestación cultural y popular de primer orden en el siglo XIX.El salto a la descripción de la juventud del siglo XX lo marca la utilización del cine como documento antropológico. Es por ello que se empieza a hablar de la juventud y los procesos de enculturación de los jóvenes a partir de los años 50 cuando el cine desarrolla la imagen del nacimiento de la cultura juvenil a escala universal, fenómeno que contribuiría a impulsar la industria pop y de masas donde se acabarían encontrando todas las clases sociales.Para acabar, la descripción de las subculturas juveniles actuales con la llegada de la postmodernidad estalla en un individualismo personalista difícil de clasificar, así que no sólo se sigue utilizando el cine como elemento de estudio y análisis, sino que se introducen los estudios de casos y un trabajo de campo original de antropología en el ciberespacio.La tesis se concluye con unas propuestas para desarrollar una pedagogía capaz de adaptarse a las características socio-afectivas de los jóvenes y las jóvenes del siglo XXI. / This doctoral thesis is a historical descriptive and ethno critically work around the processes of the enculturation of the youth. In the thesis there are described several stories that refer to various youth according to the idea it has existed more than one kind of youth along the history, and thinking about a transversal postmodern logic. At the same time it is established an opportune generic balance which the non-discrimination of the woman bear in mind in the history.According to the three main objectives developed in this thesis, the work is segregated in three different parts:· First of all, there is a description of the enculturation process of the different typologies of youth along the human history. It is done by the cultural products of each period.· The second point studies the emergence of the youth culture when the youth start being considered an anthropological category differentiated. Youth create and consume different ways of life and culture. In fact, that can make them intensify or be opposed to the traditional process (family and school) of enculturation and socialization.· And the last but not the least, this thesis analyses the actual youth subcultures to develop pedagogy for them. This pedagogy has to fit to the theorist orientation and social affective necessity of the new generations and help them to mature according to the conditions of the system in which the youth belong from a diverse and eclectic perspective. It also must make the youth behavior a civilized form of suitability at the multicultural cities of the XXI century.To develop the three objectives it has been required to use an eclectic and interdisciplinary study methodology. In this development, the base of the election of the models finds the cultural productions of each epoch analyzed and studied. In this way, the use of the literature at the first part of the doctoral thesis has prevailed; it includes different sorts of writing like poetry, narrative or philosophical essays. At the XVII century until it predominates a sort of literature in which the experiences, adventures and passions of the characters from an aristocratic world are exalted. This thesis ends referring to the youth from different aristocratic societies and its enculturation processes. The Romanticism handles some conflicts of the youth from the burgess class; those conflicts are introduced to the literature and to the opera. At the XIX century, the opera is a cultural and popular manifestation.The pass to the description of the youth from the XIX century to the XX is because the cinema, it's used as an anthropologic document. The cinema develops the image of the beginning of the universal youth culture. That's the cause why we start talking about the youth of the Fifties and the enculturation processes. This phenomenon would contribute to promote the pop industry where all social classes would end up finding them all.As a final point, the description of the actual youth subcultures, with the arrival of the postmodernism, ends up in a personal individualism that is difficult to classify. In fact the cinema is no enough to use as an element to study and analyze. Nowadays there is an introduction of cases to study and an original fieldwork of the cyberspace anthropology.This thesis concludes with some proposals that must develop pedagogy capable to be adapted to the socio affective characteristics of the young people of the XXI century.

The administration of initiation rites by an ecstatic specialist, now known to western scholarship by the general designation of ‘shaman’, has proven to be one of humanity’s oldest, most widespread, and continuous magico-religious traditions. At the heart of their initiatory rituals lay an ordeal – a metaphysical journey - almost ubiquitously brought on by the effects of a life-changing hallucinogenic drug experience. To guide their initiates, these shaman worked with a repertoire of locally acquired instruments, costumes, dances, and ecstasy-inducing substances. Among past Mediterranean cultures, Semitic and Indo-European, these sorts of initiation rites were vital to society’s spiritual well-being. It was, however, the mystery schools of antiquity – organizations founded upon conserving the secrets of plant-lore, astrology, theurgy and mystical philosophy – which satisfied the role of the shaman in Greco-Roman society. The rites they delivered to the common individual were a form of ritualized ecstasy and they provided an orderly context for religiously-oriented intoxication. In the eastern Mediterranean, these ecstatic cults were most often held in honour of a great mother goddess and her perennially dying-and-rising consort. The goddess’ religious dramas enacted in cultic ritual stressed the importance of fasting, drumming, trance-inducing music, self-mutilation, and a non-alcoholic ritual intoxication. Far and wide the dying consort worshiped by these cults was a god of vegetation, ecstasy, revelation, and salvation; by ingesting his body initiates underwent a profound mystical experience. From what limited information has survived from antiquity, it appears that the rites practiced in the eastern mystery cults were in essence traditional shamanic ordeals remodeled to suit the psychological needs of Mediterranean civilization’s marginalized people. This paper argues that the myths of this vegetable god, so-called ‘the Divine Bridegroom,’ particularly in manifestation of the Phrygian Attis and the Greek Dionysus, is deeply rooted in the life-cycle, cultivation, treatment, consumption of a tree-born hallucinogenic mushroom, Amanita muscaria. The use of this mushroom is alive and well today among Finno-Ugric shaman and this paper explores their practices as one branch of Eurasian shamanism running parallel to, albeit in a different time, the rites of the Phrygian goddess. Using extant literary and linguistic evidence, I compare the initiatory cults long-assimilated into post-agricultural Mediterranean civilization with the hallucinogen-wielding shaman of the Russian steppe, emphasizing them both as facets of a prehistoric and pan-human magico-religious archetype.

Abstract New Zealand has had a visible recreational motorcycle culture since the 1920s, although the forerunners of the later 'outlaw' motorcycle clubs really only started to emerge as loose-knit biker cliques in the 1950s. The first recognised New Zealand 'outlaw club', the Auckland chapter of the Californian Hell's Angels M.C., was established on July 1961 (Veno 2003: 31). This was the Angels' first international chapter, and only their fifth chapter overall at that time. Further outlaw clubs emerged throughout both the North and the South Island of New Zealand from the early 1960s, and were firmly established in both islands by the end of 1975. Outlaw clubs continue to flourish to this day. The basic question that motivated this thesis was how (the extent to which) international film, literature, media reports and photographic images (circa 1950 - 1975) have influenced the generic identity adopted by 'outlaw' motorcycle clubs in New Zealand, with particular reference to the South Island clubs. The focus of the research was on how a number of South Island New Zealand outlaw bikers interpreted international mass media representations of 'outlaw' biker culture between 1950 - 1975. This time span was carefully chosen after considerable research, consultation and reflection. It encompasses a period when New Zealand experienced rapid development of a global mass media, where cultural images were routinely communicated internationally in (relatively) real time. Drawing on the work of Okely and Cohen, I argue that 'outlaw' motorcycle clubs, like many other subcultures, construct their communities symbolically, and that some of the rituals and symbolism seen in New Zealand outlaw biker clubs today are substantially similar to those observed in 'outlaw' clubs in other parts of the world (Thompson 1966, Okely 1983, Cohen 1985, Veno 2003). My fieldwork clearly established that representations of outlaw motorcycle clubs were being actively consumed by South Island bikers via the international mass media from the early - mid 1960s. However, my research also revealed that, whilst the globalisation of the mass media was integral to the evolution of the generic New Zealand 'outlaw' biker social identity, it was not their only influence. South Island outlaw bikers, like any other consumer of mass media, accepted and at times appropriated some of the international and regional representations of their subculture, whilst clearly rejecting others. I also established that like any other international subculture, there were regional differences that were often determined by factors contingent to the locality, and that the South Island outlaw clubs from that period that still exist today were also influenced by conflict with significant others, including the police, during their formative stages. This supports Lavigne's and Veno's contention that warfare is good for clubs during their formative stage, as violent conflict weeds out the weak, whilst bonding surviving members to their clubs and their club brothers (Lavigne 1987: 301, Veno 2003: 263). Key words: community; sub-cultures; media; identity; gangs; outlaw motorcycle clubs David Haslett School of Sociology and Anthropology University of Canterbury Private Bag 4800 Christchurch 8140 New Zealand

Chronic intermittent ethanol exposure (CIE) is associated with degeneration of hippocampal neurons. The present study used hippocampal cultures to examine the loss of NeuN immunoreactivity, a relaible marker or neuronal density, after 1, 2, or 3 cycles of 5 days EtOH exposure (50 mM), followed by a 24-hour period of EWD or continuous EtOH exposure. NeuN immunoreactivity was decreased by 13%, 19%, and 16% in the CA1, CA3, and dentate gyrus after 3 cycles of CIE respectively; thionine staining confirmed significant cellular losses within each hippocampal subregion. Two cycles of CIE in aged tissue cultures resulted in significant decreases in NeuN immunoreactivity in all hippocampal subregions; however continuous ethanol exposure or exposure to one cycle of CIE did not. Further, exposure to the N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonist 2-amino-7-phosphonvaleric acid (APV) (30 uM) during periods of EWD attenuated the loss of NeuN in all hippocampal subregions, while exposure to APV (40 uM) prevented the loss of NeuN in the CA1 and dentate gyrus. These results suggest that the loss of mature neurons after CIE is associated with the overactivation on the NMDAR.

Gregory of Nazianzus (ca. AD 330-390) was one of the most learned men of his time and is one of the most important theologians of the early Christian Church. His orations, letters and poetry were widely studied and greatly copied in the Middle Ages. However, there is a lack of modern scholarship on Gregory's poetry, which is why there is such need for this thesis, a study of carm. II 1. 22, with introduction and commentary. The introduction focuses primarily on aspects of carm. II. 1. 22 while outlining the events of Gregory's life and situating the poem within them. The commentary is largely linguistic with autobiographical and historical features discussed and brief mention of theological matters.

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