Lisdexanfetamina (LDX) é um pró-fármaco estimulante de longa duração indicado para o tratamento dos sintomas do transtorno do déficit de atenção e hiperatividade e do transtorno da compulsão alimentar periódica. A hidrólise da ligação amida da LDX ocorre in vivo liberando a molécula terapeuticamente ativa d-anfetamina (d-ANF) e o aminoácido l-lisina. Visto que a LDX se biotransforma à d-ANF – um potente estimulante do sistema nervoso central com destaque tanto na clínica quanto na toxicologia – existe potencial para uso inadequado, abuso e desvio para fins não terapêuticos. Nos laboratórios de toxicologia, amostras biológicas com resultados positivos para anfetamina (ANF) são um desafio, uma vez que alguns testes toxicológicos podem detectar ANF devido à utilização de alguns medicamentos, dificultando a sua interpretação. Assim, são necessários métodos bioanalíticos eficientes aliados ao conhecimento farmacocinético, que permite a verificação da possibilidade de detecção, a estimativa da janela de detecção e as concentrações que podem ser alcançadas em diferentes matrizes biológicas. Dessa forma, neste trabalho, foram desenvolvidos métodos bioanalíticos para quantificação simultânea da LDX e de seu produto de biotransformação, a ANF, nas matrizes biológicas fluido oral, plasma e urina utilizando a cromatografia líquida acoplada a detector de massas sequencial (CL-EM/EM). A preparação de amostra é simples, utilizando a precipitação de proteínas para o plasma, com pouca quantidade de solvente orgânico, a diluição para o fluido oral e a filtração para urina, ambas com nenhuma quantidade de solvente orgânico. As curvas de calibração utilizando o padrão interno ANF deuterada apresentaram linearidade entre 1 e 128 ng/mL para o fluido oral e o plasma e entre 4 e 256 ng/mL para a urina. A menor concentração das curvas de calibração é igual ao limite inferior de quantificação. Precisão e exatidão intra e interdia ficaram dentro dos limites de ± 15% para os controles e ± 20% para o limite de quantificação. Os métodos foram seletivos e sem efeito residual, porém apresentaram um leve efeito matriz, frequentemente encontrado em métodos de CL-EM/EM. O método foi aplicado para análise das amostras do estudo farmacocinético da LDX e ANF nas matrizes biológicas fluido oral, plasma e urina após administração oral de LDX. Seis voluntários do sexo masculino coletaram amostras de fluido oral e plasma em tempos pré-determinados durante 72 horas e amostras de urina em intervalos pré-determinados durante 120 horas. Os dados foram avaliados de maneira não-compartimental e compartimental. Considerando a análise não-compartimental, a concentração máxima média da d-ANF foi quase seis vezes inferior no plasma em relação ao fluido oral e ocorreu em 3,8 e 4 horas, respectivamente, após a administração oral. A LDX atingiu a concentração máxima no plasma e no fluido oral em 1,2 e 1,8 horas após a administração oral, respectivamente, com um valor médio de pico de concentração quase duas vezes mais elevado no plasma em comparação com o fluido oral. A eliminação da d-ANF a partir do plasma e a partir do fluido oral foi semelhante, porém para LDX a eliminação a partir do fluido oral foi mais lenta, mesmo com concentrações mais baixas do que no plasma. A detecção da d-ANF ocorreu até 48-72 horas no plasma e fluido oral e até 120 horas em urina. Já para a LDX, a detecção ocorreu até 3, 5 e 12 horas no plasma, fluido oral e urina, respectivamente. LDX intacta e d-ANF foram detectadas nas três matrizes avaliadas. Na análise compartimental, o melhor ajuste de modelo foi observado para 1 compartimento para ambos os analitos tanto no plasma quanto no fluido oral. Houve uma correlação entre as concentrações do fluido oral e do plasma para d-ANF e entre as proporções de LDX intacta/d-ANF pelo tempo no plasma e no fluido oral. O método analítico desenvolvido pode ser aplicado em diferentes áreas do conhecimento a fim de certificar os resultados de uma análise de triagem positiva para ANF. Porém, para interpretação das situações tanto de triagem quanto de confirmação é necessário aliar o conhecimento farmacocinético gerado no trabalho, que demonstra se há a possibilidade de detecção na matriz analisada e por quanto tempo após a administração da LDX. Isto auxilia na diferenciação do uso de outros medicamentos derivados da ANF e do uso ilegal, para que as devidas providências legais e de manejos clínicos de tratamento e controle de dependência sejam tomadas quando necessário. / Lisdexamfetamine (LDX) is a long-acting prodrug stimulant indicated for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and binge-eating disorder symptoms. In vivo hydrolysis of lisdexamfetamine amide bond releases the therapeutically active d-amphetamine (d-AMPH) and the amino acid l-lysine. Since LDX biotransformation gives rise to d-AMPH - a potent stimulant of the central nervous system that stands out in clinical and toxicology - there is potential for misuse, abuse and diversion for non-therapeutic purposes. In laboratories of toxicology, biological samples with positive results for amphetamine (AMPH) are a challenge, since some toxicological tests can detect AMPH due to the use of some medications hindering the interpretation. Therefore, we need efficient bioanalytical methods combined with the pharmacokinetic knowledge, which allows to verify the possibility of detection, to assess the detection window and the concentrations that can be reached in different biological matrices. Hence, bioanalytical methods were developed for simultaneous quantification of LDX and its main biotransformation product AMPH in the biological matrices oral fluid, plasma and urine by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The sample preparation is simple, using protein precipitation for plasma, with a small amount of organic solvent, dilution for oral fluid and filtration to urine, both with no amount of organic solvent. Calibration curves using deuterated AMPH internal standard showed linearity between 1 and 128 ng/mL for oral fluid and plasma, and between 4 and 256 ng/mL for urine. The lowest concentration of the calibration curve is the lower limit of quantification. Intra and interday precision and accuracy were within the limits of ± 15% for controls and ± 20% for the limit of quantification. The methods were selective and no carry-over was observed, however with some matrix effect, often found in LC-MS/MS methods. The method was applied to analyze samples from LDX and AMPH pharmacokinetics study in the biological matrices oral fluid, plasma and urine following oral administration of LDX. Six male volunteers collected oral fluid and plasma samples at predetermined times during 72 hours and urine samples at pre-determined intervals during 120 hours. Data were evaluated through non-compartmental and compartmental analysis. Considering the noncompartmental analysis, the mean maximum concentration of d-AMPH was almost 6-fold lower in plasma than in oral fluid and occurred at 3.8 and 4 hours, respectively, after LDX administration. LDX maximum concentration was reached at 1.2 and 1.8 hours after LDX oral administration for oral fluid and plasma, respectively, with a mean peak concentration almost 2-fold higher in plasma when compared with oral fluid. Elimination of d-AMPH from oral fluid and from plasma were similar, albeit for LDX elimination from oral fluid was slower even with lower concentrations than plasma. Detection occurred until 48 to 72 hours in plasma and oral fluid and until 120 hours in urine for d-AMPH. Whereas for LDX, detection could be done for up to 3, 5 and 12 hours in plasma, oral fluid and urine, respectively. Intact LDX and d-AMPH were detected in the three evaluated matrices. In compartmental analysis, the best model fit was observed for 1-compartment model for both analytes in plasma and in oral fluid. There was a correlation between oral fluid and plasma d-AMPH concentrations and between intact LDX/d-AMPH ratios along time in plasma as well as in oral fluid. The bioanalytical methods developed can be applied in different fields of knowledge in order to ensure the results of a positive screening analysis for AMPH. Nevertheless, for interpretation of situations in both screening and confirmation tests is necessary to combine the pharmacokinetic knowledge produced in this study, which shows if there is the possibility of detection in the analyzed matrix and for how long after the administration of LDX. This results aid in the differentiation from other AMPH derived drugs use and from illegal use, so that appropriate legal action and clinical management strategies for treatments and control of dependence be taken when necessary.

abstract: One out of ten women has a difficult time getting or staying pregnant in the United States. Recent studies have identified aging as one of the key factors attributed to a decline in female reproductive health. Existing fertility diagnostic methods do not allow for the non-invasive monitoring of hormone levels across time. In recent years, olfactory sensing has emerged as a promising diagnostic tool for its potential for real-time, non-invasive monitoring. This technology has been proven promising in the areas of oncology, diabetes, and neurological disorders. Little work, however, has addressed the use of olfactory sensing with respect to female fertility. In this work, we perform a study on ten healthy female subjects to determine the volatile signature in biological samples across 28 days, correlating to fertility hormones. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the air above the biological sample, or headspace, were collected by solid phase microextraction (SPME), using a 50/30 µm divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS) coated fiber. Samples were analyzed, using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOFMS). A regression model was used to identify key analytes, corresponding to the fertility hormones estrogen and progesterone. Results indicate shifts in volatile signatures in biological samples across the 28 days, relevant to hormonal changes. Further work includes evaluating metabolic changes in volatile hormone expression as an early indicator of declining fertility, so women may one day be able to monitor their reproductive health in real-time as they age. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Biomedical Engineering 2018

Magister Pharmaceuticae - MPharm / Tuberculosis and HIV are arguably South Africa’s largest and most important health issues. With drug-resistant strains of tuberculosis on the increase and little research on new drugs, there is an urgent need for research around the drugs presently available to ensure their optimal use and to minimise their sometimes serious and significant side effects. Treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis is expensive and lengthy, and is complicated by a limited choice of drugs with lower efficacies and higher toxicities. Treatment is further complicated in patients with HIV due to several factors including drug interactions. While some authors suggest that HIV and malabsorption might be associated with poor clinical outcomes, other researchers have found no link. Patients may benefit from Therapeutic Drug Monitoring in order to ensure that their doses of antituberculosis drugs are reaching the required minimum effective concentrations, without attaining toxic levels in the plasma which may cause unpleasant side effects. There is little research concerning drug levels in HIV patients with TB in South Africa, let alone in patients with drug-resistant forms of tuberculosis, and there are no studies in this country that use Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry to investigate the plasma levels of pyrazinamide in patients with MDR-TB. This study aimed to investigate whether or not there is a difference in the pharmacokinetics of PZA in MDR-TB patients with HIV, and those without HIV infection. It also aimed to establish whether LC-MS could be used to study the levels of pyrazinamide in the plasma of patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis with and without concurrent HIV infection. The plasma levels of pyrazinamide in 32 MDR-TB patients (23 HIV negative and 9 HIV positive), were successfully 2 analysed using LC-MS, and the pharmacokinetics of PZA in these 2 populations was described. It was established that the Tmax of pyrazinamide was significantly higher in HIV-negative patients than in HIV-positive patients. Although there was a difference between the Ka in the two populations, this difference did not quite reach statistical significance. There were no statistically significant differences between HIV-negative and HIV-positive patients with regards to the other pharmacokinetic parameters investigated. Our findings established that there was little evidence to suggest that there is a difference between the pharmacokinetics of the antimycobacterial drug pyrazinamide in HIV-positive patients and that in HIV-negative patients. We were also able to successfully develop and validate an assay for the analysis of PZA in plasma using LC-MS, and this finding could be very valuable for further studies. Although our study failed to prove this, the possibility still exists that HIV-positive patients could exhibit altered kinetics of antiTB drugs and this has not been fully investigated in South Africa. The clinical impact of low plasma levels of antimycobacterial drugs is still largely unexplored and further research with larger sample sizes should be done in order to establish which factors may contribute to low plasma levels of anti-tuberculosis drugs in MDR-TB patients, and whether or not these low levels are increasing the risk of treatment failure or other poor clinical outcomes.

The essential amino acid tryptophan is an important substrate for the synthesis of serotonin, melatonin, tryptamine, proteins and the kynurenines. The aim of this study was to investigate tryptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway in a low income sub- Saharan HIV/AIDS patient population from the Gauteng Province of South Africa. The first objective was to develop and validate a novel gas chromatography mass spectrometry method to enable reliable quantification of tryptophan and metabolites of the kynurenine pathway in plasma. Validation parameters for the detection of tryptophan, kynurenine, quinolinic acid and nicotinamide conformed to international criteria for newly developed methods. The next objective of the study was to find an appropriate biomarker against which to express the results. Several substances previously described as indicators were assessed and compared, including plasma neopterin, procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, the cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF, and IFN-gamma, as well as factors routinely measured and elsewhere described as biomarkers in HIV, i.e., albumin, the albumin/globulin ratio, haemoglobin and red cell distribution width. Neopterin was shown to be superior as indicator of pro-inflammatory status, as indicator of the degree of immune deficiency, to predict disease progression, to distinguish between patients with and without tuberculosis co-infection and to reflect the success of highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART). In the analyses of the kynurenine pathway metabolites, tryptophan levels were seen to be significantly lower (24.36 ± 4.14 vs. 43.57 ± 11.85 μmol/l; p<0.0001), while the activity of the enzyme, indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO), (K/T:136.03 vs. 52.18; p<0.001), as well as kynurenine (3.21 ± 1.33 vs. 2.14 ± 0.45 μmol/l; p<0.001) and quinolinic acid (4.46 ± 2.32 vs. 0.25 ± 0.058 μmol/l; p<0.001) levels were significantly higher in the total patient group (n=105) than in the control group (n=60). Patients on HAART showed not only significantly higher CD4 counts (296.21 ± 195.50 vs. 170.05 ± 167.26 cells/μl; p=0.003), but also lower inflammatory activity (neopterin: 35.51 ± 35.70 vs. 66.63 ± 40.73 nmol/l; p<0.001 and IL-6: 9.56 ± 12.54 vs. 15.04 ± 19.34 pg/ml; p<0.05), lower IFN-γ (41.43 ± 14.14 vs. 53.68±34.39 pg/ml; p<0.05), higher tryptophan levels (25.13 ± 3.80 vs. 22.04 ± 4.32 μmol/l; p=0.033), lower kynurenine levels (3.08 ± 1.28 vs. 3.58 ± 1.42 μmol/l; p=0.144) and lower quinolinic acid levels (4.03 ± 2.04 vs. 5.77 ± 2.65μmol/l; p=0.072) than patients not on HAART. Tryptophan depletion and IDO activity, as well as the levels of kynurenine and quinolinic acid, were generally greater than in populations from developed countries. Indications are that this can be ascribed to higher levels of inflammatory activity at comparable levels of immune deficiency in the disadvantaged population of this study. The degree of tryptophan depletion and quinolinic acid accumulation found could negatively impact on the physical and neuropsychiatric wellness of the population. Correlations between quinolinic acid, and nicotinamide levels showed a significant contribution of kynurenine pathway metabolism to the plasma levels of nicotinamide. This de novo synthesis of nicotinamide could offer protection against niacin deficiency and NAD depletion in populations with inadequate dietary intake. This is the first study to assess plasma tryptophan, kynurenine, quinolinic acid and nicotinamide levels, as well as IDO activity, pro-inflammatory status and IFN-γ levels, simultaneously in one population and to compare it to that of HIV/AIDS patients in developed countries. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / Physiology / PhD / Unrestricted

Sampling and preconcentration techniques play a critical role in headspace analysis in analytical chemistry. My dissertation presents a novel sampling design, capillary microextraction of volatiles (CMV), that improves the preconcentration of volatiles and semivolatiles in a headspace with high throughput, near quantitative analysis, high recovery and unambiguous identification of compounds when coupled to mass spectrometry. The CMV devices use sol-gel polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) coated microglass fibers as the sampling/preconcentration sorbent when these fibers are stacked into open-ended capillary tubes. The design allows for dynamic headspace sampling by connecting the device to a hand-held vacuum pump. The inexpensive device can be fitted into a thermal desorption probe for thermal desorption of the extracted volatile compounds into a gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS). The performance of the CMV devices was compared with two other existing preconcentration techniques, solid phase microextraction (SPME) and planar solid phase microextraction (PSPME). Compared to SPME fibers, the CMV devices have an improved surface area and phase volume of 5000 times and 80 times, respectively. One (1) minute dynamic CMV air sampling resulted in similar performance as a 30 min static extraction using a SPME fiber. The PSPME devices have been fashioned to easily interface with ion mobility spectrometers (IMS) for explosives or drugs detection. The CMV devices are shown to offer dynamic sampling and can now be coupled to COTS GC-MS instruments. Several compound classes representing explosives have been analyzed with minimum breakthrough even after a 60 min. sampling time. The extracted volatile compounds were retained in the CMV devices when preserved in aluminum foils after sampling. Finally, the CMV sampling device were used for several different headspace profiling applications which involved sampling a shipping facility, six illicit drugs, seven military explosives and eighteen different bacteria strains. Successful detection of the target analytes at ng levels of the target signature volatile compounds in these applications suggests that the CMV devices can provide high throughput qualitative and quantitative analysis with high recovery and unambiguous identification of analytes.

<p>The aim of this study is to identify metabolic transformations in breast cancer through urinary volatile organic compounds in mammary pad or bone tumor mice models. Subsequently, it focuses on investigating the efficacy of therapeutic intervention through identified potential biomarkers. Methods for monitoring tumor development and treatment responses have technologically advanced over the years leading to significant increase in percent survival rates. Although these modalities are reliable, it would be beneficial to observe disease progression from a new perspective to gain greater understanding of cancer pathogenesis. Analysis of cellular energetics affected by cancer using bio-fluids can non-invasively help in prognosis and selection of treatment regimens. The hypothesis is altered profiles of urinary volatile metabolites is directly related to disrupted metabolic pathways. Additionally, effectiveness of treatments can be indicated through changes in concentration of metabolites. In this ancillary experiment, mouse urine specimens were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, an analytical chemistry tool in identifying volatile organic compounds. Female BALB/c mice were injected with 4T1.2 murine breast tumor cells in the mammary fat pad. Consecutively, 4T1.2 cells were injected in the right iliac artery of BALB/c mice and E0771 tumor cells injected in the tibia of C57BL/6 mice to model bone tumor. The effect of two different modes of treatment: chemical drug and mechanical stimulation was investigated through changes in compound profiles. Chemical drug therapy was conducted with dopamine agents, Triuoperazine, Fluphenazine and a statin, Pitavastatin. Mechanical stimulation included tibia and knee loading at the site of tumor cell injection were given to mice. A biological treatment mode included administration of A5 osteocyte cell line. A set of potential volatile organic compounds biomarkers differentiating mammary pad or bone confined tumors from healthy controls was identified using forward feature selection. Effect of treatments was demonstrated through hierarchical heat maps and multivariate data analysis. Compounds identified in series of experiments belonged to the class of terpenoids, precursors of cholesterol molecules. Terpene synthesis is a descending step of mevalonate pathway suggesting its potential role in cancer pathogenesis. This thesis demonstrates the ability of urine volatilomics to indicate signaling pathways inflicted in tumors. It proposes a concept of using urine to detect tumor developments at two distinct locations as well as to monitor treatment efficacy.</p><br>

Acid whey, a byproduct of Greek yogurt production, has little commercial value due to its low protein content and is also environmentally harmful when disposed of as waste. However, as a product of microbial fermentation, acid whey could be a rich source of beneficial metabolites associated with fermented foods. This study increases understanding of acid whey composition by providing a complete metabolomic profile of acid whey. Commercial and lab-made Greek yogurts, prepared with three different bacterial culture combinations, were evaluated. Samples of unfermented yogurt mix and cultured whey from each batch were analyzed. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry metabolomics were employed to separate and identify 477 metabolites, including many with potential health benefits similar to those provided by yogurt, such as creatine and acetylcarnitine. Examples of other metabolites identified in the acid whey include beneficial phospholipids (1,2-dilinoleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) and sphingolipids; compounds with neuroprotective (glycerophosphorylcholine) or cardiovascular (betaine) benefits; antimicrobial compounds (benzoic acid), and anti-inflammatory compounds (citrulline). Compared to uncultured controls, acid whey showed decreases in some metabolites associated with microbial metabolism and increases in others. Metabolite production was significantly affected by combinations of culturing organisms, and production location. Differences between lab-made and commercial samples could be caused by different starting ingredients, or environmental factors or both.

<p>Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) is a popular sampling technique that can be paired with Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). SPME-GC-MS is used in forensic chemistry due to its simplification of the sample preparation process. Headspace-Solid Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME) is a technique where the sample is heated to generate volatiles in the headspace of the vial. A SPME fiber is then inserted into the vial and the compounds in the headspace will bind to the fiber. Total Vaporization- Solid Phase Microextraction (TV-SPME) is a technique that is derived from the HS-SPME technique. </p><p>In Chapter 1, the critical comparison of HS-SPME and TV-SPME is discussed. Samples including marijuana, essential oils, and CBD oil were utilized to compare the two techniques. The compounds of interest in marijuana are the three main cannabinoids: cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD), and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The sample preparation and GC-MS parameters were kept the same for all samples to determine which SPME technique works best for these sample types and yielded the greatest sensitivity. It was found that HS-SPME shows greater sensitivity with CBN and equivalent sensitivity with essential oils, THC and CBD. </p><p>In Chapter 2, the detection of synthetic cannabinoids utilizing liquid-liquid injection as well as HS-SPME and TV-SPME is discussed. The detection of these compounds is important because this type of drug has become more prevalent in the United States because they can be chemically altered slightly so they still have the effects of a drug but can evade drug legislation. The detection of synthetic cannabinoids using liquid injection was found to be successful but detection using HS-SPME and TV-SPME was found to be unsuccessful. </p>In Chapter 3, the analyses of real and artificial saliva utilizing HS-SPME and TV-SPME is discussed. Determining the compounds present in real saliva and artificial saliva will be of importance for future research into determining if the presence of drugs in saliva can be analyzed with these techniques. The analyses of real and artificial saliva were found to be successful using HS-SPME, without derivatization, and TV-SPME, with and without derivatization. Many of the compounds present in the real saliva were detected and were confirmed to be compounds regularly found in saliva by other scientific literature.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) is a popular sampling technique that can be paired with Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). SPME-GC-MS is used in forensic chemistry due to its simplification of the sample preparation process. Headspace-Solid Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME) is a technique where the sample is heated to generate volatiles in the headspace of the vial. A SPME fiber is then inserted into the vial and the compounds in the headspace will bind to the fiber. Total Vaporization- Solid Phase Microextraction (TV-SPME) is a technique that is derived from the HS-SPME technique. In Chapter 1, the critical comparison of HS-SPME and TV-SPME is discussed. Samples including marijuana, essential oils, and CBD oil were utilized to compare the two techniques. The compounds of interest in marijuana are the three main cannabinoids: cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD), and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The sample preparation and GC-MS parameters were kept the same for all samples to determine which SPME technique works best for these sample types and yielded the greatest sensitivity. It was found that HS-SPME shows greater sensitivity with CBN and equivalent sensitivity with essential oils, THC and CBD. In Chapter 2, the detection of synthetic cannabinoids utilizing liquid-liquid injection as well as HS-SPME and TV-SPME is discussed. The detection of these compounds is important because this type of drug has become more prevalent in the United States because they can be chemically altered slightly so they still have the effects of a drug but can evade drug legislation. The detection of synthetic cannabinoids using liquid injection was found to be successful but detection using HS-SPME and TV-SPME was found to be unsuccessful. In Chapter 3, the analyses of real and artificial saliva utilizing HS-SPME and TV-SPME is discussed. Determining the compounds present in real saliva and artificial saliva will be of importance for future research into determining if the presence of drugs in saliva can be analyzed with these techniques. The analyses of real and artificial saliva were found to be successful using HS-SPME, without derivatization, and TV-SPME, with and without derivatization. Many of the compounds present in the real saliva were detected and were confirmed to be compounds regularly found in saliva by other scientific literature.

OBJECTIVE: Methylphenidate is commonly used in the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and narcolepsy. Methylphenidate is administered as a racemic mixture of the d- and l-threo enantiomers; however, the d-enantiomer is primarily responsible for the pharmacologic activity. Previous studies of the behavioral effects of methylphenidate have highlighted sex differences in the responsiveness to the drug, namely an increased sensitivity of females to its stimulatory effects. These differences may be due to differences in the uptake, distribution, and elimination of methylphenidate from male and female brains. Therefore, we compared the pharmacokinetics of d- and l-threo methylphenidate in the brains of male and female rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with 5 mg/kg d, l-threo methylphenidate, and whole brains were collected at various time points following injection. We measured methylphenidate concentrations utilizing chiral high pressure liquid chromatography followed by mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Females exhibited consistently higher brain concentrations of both d- and lmethylphenidate and a slower clearance of methylphenidate from brain as compared to males, particularly with the active d-enantiomer. CONCLUSIONS: The increased sensitivity of females to methylphenidate may be partially explained by an increase in total brain exposure to the drug