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The major purpose of this study was to investigate the satisfaction clients obtain from counseling. Satisfaction was determined by means of the degree of fulfillment of expectancy utilizing the Inventory of Fulfillment of Client Expectancy (IFCE). The fulfillment of expectancy was compared between three groups of counselors with different degrees of professional preparations in two domains--cognitive and affective. The total fulfillment of the two domains were also compared among the three groups. Other purposes of the research were to identify the expectancies clients have when they enter counseling, and to determine if a difference exists as to the expectancies of clients within the three counselor groups in regards to the cognitive domain, the affective domain, and the total of the two domains.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, 1976. / Vita. Date on t.p.: 1975. Bibliography: p. 256-273.

M.A. (Clinical Psychology) / Please refer to full text to view abstract

This investigative study was on the effects psychotherapy had on client-perceived latent power as a dimension of personality. Additionally, the effects of increased perceived latent power upon the fulfillment of client expectation in psychotherapy was examined.The subjects for the research were selected from among persons presenting themselves for personal counseling at the Counseling and Psychological Services Center at Ball State University. The sample of this population consisted of 30 individuals who had completed a minimum of four therapy sessions but not more than eight sessions.Each subject was given the Rotter I-E Scale during the intake interview at the Counseling Center at Ball State University. After receiving psychotherapeutic treatment, the subjects were readministered the Rotter I-E Scale and were administered the Inventory of Fulfillment of Client Expectancy (IFCE).A summary of the subject demographic data was reported to the Director of the Counseling and Psychological Services Center. He concluded that subjects participatingin the study were typical of clients receiving personal counseling at the Counseling and Psychological Services Center at Ball State University.A pretest-posttest no control group research design was selected to treat the data. A t-test for repeated measures was performed and yielded a significant increase in client-perceived power as a result of psychotherapy (.02 level). Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient (Rho) statistical procedures were applied to determine if a rank-order relationship existed between the amount of change in the internal direction on the Rotter I-E Scale and the amount of fulfillment of client expectations in psychotherapy as measured by the IFCE. The fulfillment of client expectations was subdivided into Mean Value scores, Affective Domain scores, and Cognitive Domain scores. In each case a t-test for the significance of Rho indicated that the rank-order relationship was not statistically significant.Based upon the analysis of the data, the following conclusions were made:1. As a result of psychotherapy, client-perceived latent power significantly increased. Subjects were found to possess a significantly greater degree of internal locus of control as a result of the therapeutic experience.2. No significant rank-order correlation existed between the amount of client change in the internal direction on the locus of control and the total fulfillment of client expectations in psychotherapy.3. No significant rank-order correlation existed between the amount of client change in the internal direction on locus of control and the fulfillment of client affective expectations in psychotherapy.4. No significant rank-order correlation existed between the amount of client change in the internal direction of locus of control and the fulfillment of client cognitive expectations in psychotherapy.5. The subjects who received psychotherapeutic treatment at the Counseling and Psychological Services Center at Ball State University were satisfied with the treatment they received and considered the therapy successful.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1975. / Typescript. Vita. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 231-235).

M.A. (Clinical Psychology) / Despite more than a century of development, there can be little doubt that many psychologists today still adhere to a worldview that characterised the earliest developments in the discipline. A worldview which holds that there is an external reality, that objectivity is attainable, and that, given enough time and effort, we shall be able to discover the 'truth'. These psychologists have chosen to ignore the occurrence of what may well be regarded as a paradigm shift, in the sense that Kuhnian philosophers of science use this phrase. They tend to believe that if anything exists, it must exist in some measurable quantity. In sharp contradistinction, adherents of the constructivist orientation, who have admittedly been influenced by developments in what is often referred to as the 'new physics', adopt a stance in which they emphasise the essentially subjective nature of what we know- or, at least, believe we know. Constuctivism, in spite of not representing a unitary body of theory, accepts that all so-called knowledge - especially knowledge about other human beings - is dramatically influenced by our assumptions, prejudices, perceptions and constructions about the people, events, and stories that we all tell to ourselves, and to others, about the events that represent our lives. Given the body of constructivist thinking, a question that arises is whether, and to what extent, it is possible to apply this highly abstract worldview to the interpretation of the events that occur in, for example, a single psychotherapy session. In this dissertation an attempt has been made to analyze the events of a single (and singular!) therapy session. The analysis has been conducted at several levels of abstraction. The events are viewed from the perspective of a transcript of the session, from the angle of the therapist's interpretation of what occurred during the session and what he attempted to achieve, from a viewpoint adopted by the author of the dissertation (who also happens to be the therapist in question), and from the position of yet a fourth 'participant' who is referred to as the rapporteur. The latter dwells on the conceptual implications of other discussions in the dissertation. The recursive nature of the interactions between the four 'viewers' of, or 'commentators' on, the process, and the complexities which derive from adopting a constructivist stance in which the alleged certainties of a positivist position are eschewed, are illustrated in the conceptual analysis and description offered. Ultimately, it would appear, a constructivist stance has numerous benefits, although they may not readily be admitted to by those with a low tolerance of ambiguity.

M.A. (Psychology) / Essentially constructionism suggests that there are various realities, each revealing an aspect of a constructed "truth" which may change across time, culture, context and therapist and is therefore relative. It follows that causal connections are arbitrary punctuations which are merely the subjective opinion of the observer and not the objective reality. Although knowledge is relative, by means of mutual perceptions, consensual insights are arrived at which are awarded truth status at a certain point and in a certain culture. The use of two such modern consensual realities in psychology, the Thematic Apperception Test and therapist descriptions, implemented in this thesis, lead us to an issue in the constructionism debate which has yet to be resolved, namely: what is the status of pragmatism in constructionism? In this thesis the issue is discussed and the view taken that pragmatism, with certain reservations, does belong to constructionism. As the debate regarding constructionism only recently gained momentum in therapeutic psychology, it is still of a theoretical nature and hardly any literature is available addressing the practical aspects of constructionist therapy. However, certain guidelines for a constructionist-type therapy could be identified from the literature. Constructionist therapy assumes a co-operative, respecting therapeutic stance. The members of the client system are regarded as experts on their own problem, and the therapist refrains from the prescribing solutions, relying on the client himself to find new opinions and realities, in his life. The therapeutic process is not aimed at disclosing or representing reality by means of language, but at presenting new realities for consideration which tie in with a particular clients' unique way of giving meaning to his own life. In this way the client is placed in a new observing situation with impact to himself and his own problem, enabling him to reach other realities regarding his problem...

This is an analogue study of process and outcome in client-centered therapy focusing chiefly on empathy. Therapist experienced, therapist communicated, and client received empathy were interrelated, and their impact on client depth of experiencing and problem resolution was examined. Thirty subjects engaged in one session of Client-Centered treatment in which they dealt with "splits", internal conflicts characterized by personal incongruence.. Before the sessions the subjects prepared a Goal Attainment Scale, which specified five personalized stages of behavioral and affective change regarding the split. During sessions audio recordings were made which were, later rated for therapist communicated empathy and client depth of experiencing. Subjects also rated therapist empathy, and seven days later they assessed change on their Goal Attainment Scales. Session scores for therapist experienced empathy, therapist communicated empathy, client received empathy, client depth of experiencing, and treatment outcome were then intercorrelated and analyzed in a manner analogous to path analysis. A similar process was applied to the combined results of similar research, and the path generated from this integrative summary and the results of the present study were compared to gain a clearer perspective on the causal flow among the process and outcome variables. As well, scores on the three empathy phases were compared for therapists across the two subjects they interacted with, and the interaction of therapist communicated empathy and client depth of experiencing was examined by a content analysis of each session. The path results suggest that therapist empathic communications lead to client perceptions of therapist empathy, which directly facilitates treatment outcome. Client depth of experiencing was remote from the empathy phases and outcome, failing to demonstrate that experiencing is an intervening variable between therapist empathy and outcome, These results are tentative since only one correlation, communicated by received empathy, was significant at .05. However the pattern is highly supported: by the relations among empathy, experiencing, and outcome derived from the integrative summary. The content analysis of therapist communicated empathy and client depth of experiencing suggested that client self-expression and exploration can be inhibited by therapists making an excessive number of reflections based on inaccurate or insufficient understanding of the client. This implied that there are some cases in which empathy and experiencing may be causally related, although this causal linkage is not consistent when examined across all client-therapist interaction. Comparison of the correlations between the three empathy phases and process and outcome measures, in conjunction with the correlations among the phases, suggested that the phases were related but distinct constructs. Therapist experienced empathy appeared to be a relationship variable that was essentially unrelated to treatment process and outcome. Therapist communicated empathy and client received empathy were relatively stable across clients, suggesting that these variables reflect therapist trait empathy. Of the three phases, client received empathy was most strongly predictive of treatment outcome. Overall, the study suggests that, within first sessions of client-centered treatment, therapist empathic communications are related to the client's perceptions of the therapist's empathy level in the relationship. These perceptions in turn positively influence treatment outcome. Changes in the level of client depth of experiencing may also be affected to a minor degree by communicated empathy, but experiencing does not appear to powerfully influence the treatment process at this early stage. The results suggest that client received empathy, being the empathy phase most predictive of treatment outcome, should be the phase most highly stressed in client-centered treatment. Frequent CRE ratings could furnish the therapist with a valuable index of the efficacy of the treatment process. A further implication for training of Rogerian therapists is that the overall concept of empathy encompasses therapist verbal and kinesic actions beyond the scope of scales measuring communicated empathy, the empathy phase most often stressed in>the training process. Finally, this study points to the potential value of an extensive meta-analysis of client-centered treatment research which would quantitatively integrate and summarize the extant findings regarding this school of psychotherapy. / Education, Faculty of / Graduate

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