Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A união estável é uma forma de relação conjugal presente, como concubinato, em diversas sociedades desde a antiguidade, constituindo uma opção de vida conjugal que tem se tornado cada vez mais freqüente na atualidade. O novo Código Civil (2002), em coerência com as mudanças introduzidas pela Constituição de 1988, confere a esse tipo de vínculo o título de entidade familiar, passando ele a compor o Livro de Família deste diploma legal. O tratamento jurídico fez dessa forma de relação antiga um novo arranjo conjugal, fato com inúmeras implicações no âmbito da vida privada. Como fato novo, a união estável gera estranhamentos, provocando um processo de familiarização social através da sua ancoragem em forma de relações conjugais já existentes: o casamento ou o concubinato. A partir desse entendimento, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo descrever, analisar e comparar as representações sociais a respeito da união estável produzidas por homens e mulheres, em quatro condições distintas: casados, solteiros, em união estável, separados. A amostra da pesquisa empírica foi composta de 304 sujeitos, com 76 em cada situação conjugal considerada, sendo metade homens e metade mulheres. O instrumento utilizado foi um questionário composto de 41 questões, sendo 21 fechadas e 19 abertas. Dentre elas, 40 são questões substantivas relativas à união estável, com vistas à obtenção de dados que configurem circunstancialmente as representações sociais. O questionário é iniciado por uma questão específica de evocação livre à descrição de uma relação conjugal do tipo união estável, para identificação dos conteúdos temáticos básicos e da estrutura das representações, de modo a permitir sua comparação. Finalmente, uma questão, desmembrada em 6 itens, visa à caracterização sócio-demográfica do conjunto dos sujeitos. As evocações foram analisadas através do software EVOC, permitindo identificar a estrutura das representações sociais. As respostas às perguntas fechadas e abertas, estas após sua categorização, foram objeto de um tratamento estatístico descritivo simples. Os resultados demonstraram que o núcleo central das representações sociais dos quatro grupos investigados compõe-se basicamente pelos sentimentos de amor e respeito. Observou-se também um alto grau de informação a respeito da união estável e posicionamentos predominantemente favoráveis tanto a respeito da legalização quanto em relação a alguns de seus aspectos jurídicos considerados polêmicos, como a conversão da união estável em casamento. Este estudo evidenciou ainda que a representação social da união estável procede basicamente de uma ancoragem no casamento, embora se tenha observado também a perpetuação da crença existente no senso comum de que é mais fácil se separar na união estável do que casamento / The Common-law marriage is one kind of interpersonal relationships, as concubinage, existent in many societies since the beginning of time. Besides being one option for couples who seek an intimate relationship, it has become increasingly frequent nowadays. The new Civil Code (2002) in agreement with the changes introduced by the 1988 Constitution statuses this type of union the with the title of Family Unit and establishes it as part of the Book of Family of this piece of legislation. The legal recognition made this ancient kind of union a new possibility of marriage, what leads to unlimited implications concerning people' private lives. As any new fact, common-law marriage brings up strangeness, leading to a process of social familiarization basically through the foundations of the existent kinds of wedlocks, the statutory marriage and concubinage. From this understanding, the following paper had as objectives to describe, analyze and compare the social representations concerning common-law marriage by men and women in four different marital status: legally married, single, separated and living in a common-law marriage. The sample of the empirical research was composed of 304 subjects, 76 in each marital status considered, being half men and half women. The instrument used was a questionnaire consisting of 41 questions, 21 of them were close and 19 were open questions. Among them, 40 were substancial questions related to common-law marriage in order to obtain data that would define the social representations. The questionnaire starts with a descriptive brainstorming question on common-law marriage to identify the basic content themes and the structure of the representations, so that it would be possible to compare. Eventually, a question broken into 6 itens aimed to specify the subjects social-demographic status. The evocations were analyzed by the software EVOC allowing to identify the structure of the social representations. After categorization, the answers to both open and close questions were subject of a simple descriptive statistical treatment. The results showed that the central core of the social representations in each of the four groups investigated is composed mainly by the feelings of love and respect. In addition, it was noticed a high level of information concerning common-law marriage and predominantly favourable positions not only concerning legalization but also into some controversial legal aspects such as the conversion of common-law marriage into statutory marriage. This research pointed out that the social representation of common-law marriage stands anchored basically into statutory marriage, although it was also observed the perpetuation of the existing common sense belief that it is easier to separate when in a common-law marriage than in a legal marriage.

A real property law inglesa é um tema pouco estudado na tradição jurídica de base romanística, e menos ainda no Brasil. Mesmo a literatura comparatística tem minimizado, ou mesmo omitido, o estudo abrangente das fontes inglesas ao analisar o tema, resultando na ausência de trabalhos escritos desde uma perspectiva do direito privado continental que analisem com maior profundidade os principais elementos formativos dos direitos reais sobre bens imóveis de matriz inglesa. As referências e alusões ao sistema do common law, contudo, são hoje cada vez mais freqüentes nos ordenamentos de matriz civilística, principalmente em razão da maior interação entre ordenamentos pertencentes a sistemas jurídicos de tradição histórica diversa. Portanto, para estabelecer diálogos relevantes, deve-se dedicar atenção especial aos principais elementos de formação do sistema de direito inglês, de modo a desvendar sua particular estrutura e terminologia. O primeiro passo para estabelecer esse diálogo é conhecer os elementos que deram origem ao sistema do common law. Dado o forte vínculo do direito inglês com a sua história, torna-se necessário o estudo da real property law por meio de uma análise das suas fontes históricas que revele tanto a estrutura conceitual quanto o sentido das expressões e dos institutos mais típicos do sistema do common law. É esse estudo que pretendemos realizar neste trabalho, mediante a análise da formação histórica das tenures, dos estates, da equity e dos trusts. Uma pesquisa baseada nas fontes relativas à formação da real property law traz a vantagem adicional de fornecer uma visão ampla acerca da natureza e o funcionamento do sistema do common law como um todo, na medida em que o desenvolvimento primário do direito inglês esteve associado à estrutura dos direitos reais sobre bens imóveis na Inglaterra. Desse contexto derivam, em larga medida, as particularidades e as características que tornam o sistema do common law, em muitos aspectos, diverso dos sistemas jurídicos de tradição romanística. A busca por uma aproximação entre os sistemas pertencentes a essas duas tradições jurídicas exige uma compreensão dos elementos que deram origem à diversidade entre elas. Nossa proposta é, justamente, identificar esses elementos e torná-los compreensíveis desde uma perspectiva civilística, por meio de uma análise das fontes inglesas mais relevantes para o tema. / English real property law is not a subject very often studied in the legal tradition based on Roman law, and even less so in Brazil. Even comparative writers have tended to minimize, if not altogether omit, a comprehensive study of the English sources when discussing the subject, resulting in a lack of literature, written from the perspective of continental private law, that analyses in greater depth the main formative elements of the law of real property based on the English legal model. The references and allusions to the common law legal system, however, have become increasingly more frequent in civil law contexts, largely due to the greater degree of interaction between legal systems belonging to different historical traditions. Thus, in order to establish meaningful dialogues, special attention must be given to the main factors that shaped the English legal system, thereby unveiling its specific structure and terminology. The firs step towards establishing such a dialogue is to understand the elements that gave birth to the common law legal system. Given the strong connection English law has with its history, it is necessary to study the real property law through an analysis of its historical sources, which will reveal the conceptual structure and the meaning of the most typical expressions and institutions of the English legal system. That is the task undertaken herein, to be accomplished through the study of the historical inception of the doctrine of tenures, the doctrine of estates, equity and trusts. A study based on the sources regarding the formation of the real property law brings the additional advantage of providing a broad outlook on the nature and operation of the English legal system as a whole, as the primary development of English law was associated to the structure of rights over land in England. That context is the cause, to a large extent, of the peculiarities and characteristics that make the English legal system, in many ways, different from legal systems based on Roman law. The pursuit for a closer interaction between the legal systems that belong to those two legal traditions requires an understanding of the elements that determined their differences. The object of this research is to identify those elements and make them comprehensible from a civilian perspective, by means of an analysis of the most relevant English sources on the subject.

Made available in DSpace on 2013-12-19T01:00:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 000452923-Texto+Parcial-0.pdf: 1693972 bytes, checksum: 158a01c84e2fe346f4999fbae55c9c60 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / This paper examines the role of the judge in conducting civil cases throughout history since the Middle Ages, during which germinated the formation of the two legal traditions of the Western world - civil law and common law. It starts with the approach of the relationship between the political and social context to jurisdiction, seeking to establish the connection between the concentration and the strengthening of state power, the centralization of legal activity in the state and the appreciation of the task of legal rules’ enforcement by the courts, determined in civil law, on the one hand, and the devolution of political power, the overvaluation of the parties’ performance and the prominence of the particularities of the case, attested in common law, on the other, with the formatting process of two contrasted models, both aiming to solve the conflict, and, nevertheless, absorbing differently the partial change in the purpose of government action during the transition state from liberal to welfare state. It follows the finding that, despite the assignment of a positive responsibility to conduct the case to the judge since the late nineteenth century, each tradition reacted in its own way, demonstrating the obvious disadvantages of the bulking of judicial discretion in English and especially American settings and the assumption of an authoritarian-interventionist posture in Continental and Latin-American sceneries. Following the approach, it is portrayed the contours assumed by legal phenomenon in a democratic state under rule of law, in which, given the recognition of normative principles, legal process should become the arena where concrete cases are effectively debated and decided with reference to legal and constitutional system. As a result, it is recognized the need that such results obtain a procedural and substantive legitimacy, which is achieved by allowing parties to participate in the construction of the solution that involves their cause, but whose gear is driven by the judge, who has the duty to give hints and feedbacks – as it is embodied in the German procedural system – in order to attain the conformation of a suitable procedure, balanced and real opportunities of thorough discussion, a quick decision and a disposition by settlement, when appropriate. / O presente trabalho examina o papel do juiz na direção do processo, ao longo da história a contar da Idade Média, período no qual germinada a formação das duas tradições jurídicas do mundo ocidental – civil law e common law. Parte-se da abordagem da relação entre o contexto político-social e a jurisdição, buscando estabelecer a conexão entre a concentração e o fortalecimento do poder estatal, a centralização da atividade jurídica no Estado e a valorização da tarefa de aplicação da lei pelo juiz, verificada em civil law, de um lado, e a desconcentração do poder político, a sobrevalorização da atuação das partes no processo e a proeminência das peculiaridades do caso concreto, atestada em common law, de outro, com a formatação de dois modelos contrapostos de processo, ambos voltados à solução de conflitos mas que restam por absorver, de forma diversa, a parcial mudança na finalidade da atuação estatal, na transição do Estado Liberal para o Estado Social. Segue-se a verificação de que, não obstante a atribuição da direção do processo ao juiz desde o final do século XIX, em ambos os contextos, cada qual a repercutiu de determinada forma, restando evidentes as desvantagens do avultamento da discricionariedade judicial nos cenários inglês e, sobretudo, estadunidense, e a assunção de um caráter autoritário-interventivo da postura do magistrado no painel europeu-continental e latinoamericano. Na sequência, retratam-se os contornos assumidos pelo fenômeno jurídico no âmbito do Estado Democrático de Direito, onde, dado o reconhecimento da normatividade dos princípios, o processo deve transformar-se no espaço em que efetivamente se controvertam situações fáticas concretas, a serem decididas com o referencial do ordenamento jurídico-constitucional. Decorre daí a necessidade de que seus resultados legitimem-se processual e materialmente, o que se dá pela abertura à participação das partes na construção da solução jurídica da causa que as envolva, mas cuja engrenagem é orientada pela atuação do juiz na direção material do processo, nos termos como consagrado o instituto no sistema processual alemão, de forma que se assegurem a conformação de um procedimento idôneo, oportunidades reais e equilibradas do debate exaustivo, um rápido deslide do feito e, sendo aconselhável, o seu encerramento pela via da autocomposição.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A união estável é uma forma de relação conjugal presente, como concubinato, em diversas sociedades desde a antiguidade, constituindo uma opção de vida conjugal que tem se tornado cada vez mais freqüente na atualidade. O novo Código Civil (2002), em coerência com as mudanças introduzidas pela Constituição de 1988, confere a esse tipo de vínculo o título de entidade familiar, passando ele a compor o Livro de Família deste diploma legal. O tratamento jurídico fez dessa forma de relação antiga um novo arranjo conjugal, fato com inúmeras implicações no âmbito da vida privada. Como fato novo, a união estável gera estranhamentos, provocando um processo de familiarização social através da sua ancoragem em forma de relações conjugais já existentes: o casamento ou o concubinato. A partir desse entendimento, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo descrever, analisar e comparar as representações sociais a respeito da união estável produzidas por homens e mulheres, em quatro condições distintas: casados, solteiros, em união estável, separados. A amostra da pesquisa empírica foi composta de 304 sujeitos, com 76 em cada situação conjugal considerada, sendo metade homens e metade mulheres. O instrumento utilizado foi um questionário composto de 41 questões, sendo 21 fechadas e 19 abertas. Dentre elas, 40 são questões substantivas relativas à união estável, com vistas à obtenção de dados que configurem circunstancialmente as representações sociais. O questionário é iniciado por uma questão específica de evocação livre à descrição de uma relação conjugal do tipo união estável, para identificação dos conteúdos temáticos básicos e da estrutura das representações, de modo a permitir sua comparação. Finalmente, uma questão, desmembrada em 6 itens, visa à caracterização sócio-demográfica do conjunto dos sujeitos. As evocações foram analisadas através do software EVOC, permitindo identificar a estrutura das representações sociais. As respostas às perguntas fechadas e abertas, estas após sua categorização, foram objeto de um tratamento estatístico descritivo simples. Os resultados demonstraram que o núcleo central das representações sociais dos quatro grupos investigados compõe-se basicamente pelos sentimentos de amor e respeito. Observou-se também um alto grau de informação a respeito da união estável e posicionamentos predominantemente favoráveis tanto a respeito da legalização quanto em relação a alguns de seus aspectos jurídicos considerados polêmicos, como a conversão da união estável em casamento. Este estudo evidenciou ainda que a representação social da união estável procede basicamente de uma ancoragem no casamento, embora se tenha observado também a perpetuação da crença existente no senso comum de que é mais fácil se separar na união estável do que casamento / The Common-law marriage is one kind of interpersonal relationships, as concubinage, existent in many societies since the beginning of time. Besides being one option for couples who seek an intimate relationship, it has become increasingly frequent nowadays. The new Civil Code (2002) in agreement with the changes introduced by the 1988 Constitution statuses this type of union the with the title of Family Unit and establishes it as part of the Book of Family of this piece of legislation. The legal recognition made this ancient kind of union a new possibility of marriage, what leads to unlimited implications concerning people' private lives. As any new fact, common-law marriage brings up strangeness, leading to a process of social familiarization basically through the foundations of the existent kinds of wedlocks, the statutory marriage and concubinage. From this understanding, the following paper had as objectives to describe, analyze and compare the social representations concerning common-law marriage by men and women in four different marital status: legally married, single, separated and living in a common-law marriage. The sample of the empirical research was composed of 304 subjects, 76 in each marital status considered, being half men and half women. The instrument used was a questionnaire consisting of 41 questions, 21 of them were close and 19 were open questions. Among them, 40 were substancial questions related to common-law marriage in order to obtain data that would define the social representations. The questionnaire starts with a descriptive brainstorming question on common-law marriage to identify the basic content themes and the structure of the representations, so that it would be possible to compare. Eventually, a question broken into 6 itens aimed to specify the subjects social-demographic status. The evocations were analyzed by the software EVOC allowing to identify the structure of the social representations. After categorization, the answers to both open and close questions were subject of a simple descriptive statistical treatment. The results showed that the central core of the social representations in each of the four groups investigated is composed mainly by the feelings of love and respect. In addition, it was noticed a high level of information concerning common-law marriage and predominantly favourable positions not only concerning legalization but also into some controversial legal aspects such as the conversion of common-law marriage into statutory marriage. This research pointed out that the social representation of common-law marriage stands anchored basically into statutory marriage, although it was also observed the perpetuation of the existing common sense belief that it is easier to separate when in a common-law marriage than in a legal marriage.

A normatização da família merece tratamento absolutamente preferencial na organização social. O primeiro vínculo numa sociedade é o familiar e as relações que se criam nesse ambiente geram conseqüências sociais, jurídicas e patrimoniais que merecem uma atenta observação do Poder Legislativo. No início do III milênio, não basta a mera previsão constitucional que define a união estável como entidade familiar. Exige-se agora uma ampla cadeia de proteção legal. As maneiras pelas quais se podem constituir uma família são variadas, mas é facilmente constatável que o casamento e a união estável ganham primazia em números absolutos na sociedade ocidental. Nos dois casos, um homem e uma mulher unem-se com o claro objetivo de constituir uma família, com todas as conseqüências e efeitos que a palavra enseja. Daí em diante surge uma miríade de oportunidades para litígios e controvérsias entre os pares, o que também é constatável nos balcões dos fóruns e nos domicílios por todo o país. Guarda dos filhos, estado civil, necessidade de vênia para alienação de bens, meação, direito real de habitação ao sobrevivente e efeitos sucessórios são apenas alguns dos tantos itens nos quais ou há lacuna do ordenamento ou a lei existe, mas trata as realidades sociais de modo absolutamente díspares. Isso em detrimento da família no aspecto mais amplo da palavra e ofendendo a dignidade da pessoa humana dos conviventes da união estável, dos filhos destas lídimas uniões e dos demais atores sociais envolvidos, violando frontalmente a Constituição Federal. A presente tese aborda o histórico pátrio da união estável, traz um estudo comparativo com países ocidentais e demonstra as divergências existentes hoje na regulamentação dessas espécies de família. Após demonstrar robustos fundamentos acerca da necessidade de sistematização legislativa, a tese concluí pela proposta de uma ampla reforma no ordenamento, que alteraria a proteção conferida aos conviventes da união estável, visando sistematizá-la de modo digno. / The normatization of the family deserves absolutely preferential treatment in the social organization. The first bond in a society is the familiar one and the relations that are created in this environment generate social, legal and patrimonial consequences that deserve close attention of the Legislative. At the beginning of the third millennium, the mere constitutional forecast that defines the domestic partnership as a familiar entity is not enough. Its now required an ample chain of legal protection. The ways in which a family can be created are varied, but it is easily verifiable that the marriage and the domestic partnership gain priority in absolute numbers in the occidental society. In the two cases, a man and a woman join themselves with the clear objective to constitute a family, with all the consequences and effects that the word carries. From this moment on a myriad of chances for litigations and controversies appear between the pairs, which is also verifiable at the assistance counters of the Court Houses and at the domiciles in the whole country. Child custody disputes, civil status, necessity of spousal consent for property alienation, elective share, joint tenancy with right of survivorship and successor rights effects are only some of the many items in which there are gaps in the legal system or the law exists, but it deals with the social realities in an absolutely incongruent way. This in detriment of the family in the amplest aspect of the word and offending the dignity of the human being of the parties in the domestic partnership, of the children of these legitimate unions and of all other involved social actor, violating the Federal Constitution. The present thesis approaches the native history of the domestic partnership, brings a comparative study of occidental countries and demonstrates the actual existing divergences in the regulation of these kinds of family. After demonstrating strong reasons in reference to the need of the legislative systematization, the thesis concludes with the proposal of a wide reformation in the legal system that would modify the protection conferred to the parties in the domestic partnership, aiming to systemize it in a dignified manner.

No autorizada por el autor para ser publicada a texto completo / Tesis (magíster en derecho con mención en derecho privado) / En la primera parte de este trabajo se revisan los conceptos y las funciones de las declaraciones y garantías contractuales en el Common Law. En la segunda parte, se estudia la recepción en Chile de las declaraciones y garantías contractuales. Para ello se acude a la escasa doctrina nacional sobre el tema y también a la jurisprudencia nacional. Con este objeto, se identifica el contenido de las declaraciones y garantías contractuales que suelen usarse en Chile. Luego, se examinan las funciones que cumplen en la práctica chilena. A continuación, se analiza la naturaleza jurídica de las declaraciones y garantías contractuales. Finalmente, se examina la posibilidad de acudir a las categorías del error, del dolo y de los vicios redhibitorios, para hacer frente a su incumplimiento

Magister Legum - LLM

No abstract available / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Mercantile Law / unrestricted

This dissertation purports to set out the requirements for locus standi in terms of section 38 of the Constitution, specifically when it comes to procuring standing in matters brought by way of a class action. In order to answer the question it is also necessary to look at the need for a class action procedure in the South African civil procedural law as this explains the courts' expansive approach in granting members and representatives standing before a court, specifically in cases where the common law traditional rules of standing and joinder would not suffice. Locus standi is concerned with the capability of an entity to be a participant in a matter before a court of law, having due regard to the applicability of the point in issue to the person of the litigant and its faculty to litigate. In accordance with common law prescriptions, locus standi of prospective litigants to obtain legal relief only accrues to those that have personally suffered harm or would suffer harm through the violation or threatened violation of their legally enforceable rights. In contrast to the above the procedural measures contained in section 38 of the Final Constitution of 1996 allow for representative actions to be brought on behalf of adversely affected parties where the dominus litis is not necessarily the violated party as well as the recipient of the fruits of successful adjudication. Sections 38(c) and (d) of the Final Constitution of 1996 established inter alia class actions and public interest litigation by expanding the common law mandated categories of persons capable of instituting legal proceedings. This dissertation researched the need for a procedural device such as the class action in a specific South African milieu characterised by inopportune social and economic circumstances. The class action is specifically engineered to accommodate large numbers of affected parties that do not need to be joined in a traditional manner. Judicial recognition of the benefits of the class action from a South African point of view must necessarily take into account the social and economic circumstances of the members in whose favour the procedure are implemented. Apart from the procedural advantages, this particular process provides for a diminishing effect of factors such as low income, lack of legal knowledge, lack of funds for legal assistance and nominal pecuniary claims that prevent litigants from vindicating their rights and approaching the courts single handed. The requirements for locus standi under the constitutional dispensation, with specific reference to the generous judicial approach to matters, specifically where fundamental rights are violated or threatened, were examined. It is submitted that these requirements will be of assistance when the citation of the parties is to be drafted. In order to institute action in terms of one or more subsections, a prospective litigant need to show that a right enshrined in the Bill of Rights have been encroached upon as well as sufficient interest in the relief sought. Some aspects related to locus standi but not necessary for procurement of standing were researched in order to contextualise the setting for the use of section 38 procedural measures. There are currently no formal requirements that litigating class or group members have to comply with. The lack of statutory regulatory sources has forced South African courts with inherent jurisdiction to create guidelines regarding the practical aspects of class action litigation. Unfortunately the judicial intervention in creating practical directives for prospective and current litigants to follow has not occurred without mishap. Even though the question of whether the class action procedure is the suitable method to adjudicate the matter does not have a direct bearing on the standing of a party, it is an important aspect to consider when one evaluated possible courses of action. The correct procedure is invaluable when the court is asked to grant parties leave to litigate in accordance with the class action procedure. From a procedural point of view, the court must assist in directing parties as to the preferred manner to proceed with the matter. It was found that the courts have mistakenly held that compliance with certain unique procedures specific to class actions is necessary in order to procure locus standi. Even though an extended application of section 38(c) is favoured, any consideration thereof must take the express introduction by way of legislation into account that sets out the practical aspects of this mechanism. In the socio–economic state of affairs currently prevailing in South Africa, the high costs of legal assistance, countered with the complexity of procuring state provided legal aid, deters many a plaintiff to obtain civil justice. In this respect it can be said that the adjudicative approach of group action proceedings should accommodate a contextualized social setting. The goal is ultimately to expound a device suited and shaped to accommodate both the legal and extra–curial settings of South Africa. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Procedural Law / unrestricted

The challenge in the law of defamation lies in finding the appropriate balance between the two competing rights of freedom of expression and an unimpaired reputation. From Roman and Roman-Dutch law into the modern era, criminal and civil defamation have been very closely linked. The elements and defences are substantially alike. There were several calls prior to 1994 for the abrogation of criminal defamation. Now that the right to an unimpaired reputation, as part of the right to human dignity, and the right to freedom of expression is constitutionally guaranteed, quo vadis the crime of criminal defamation? The Supreme Court of Appeal has recently granted a petition for leave to appeal against convictions for criminal defamation on this very point: is the offence constitutional. Due to the paucity of criminal defamation precedent, the copious civil law precedent concerning civil defamation must be analysed to determine what view the Supreme Court of Appeal will adopt. Prior to 1994 the right to an unimpaired reputation has trumped freedom of expression. Since then, the two leading decisions by the Supreme Court of Appeal and the Constitutional Court have ameliorated this situation slightly, according freedom of expression more weight. Claiming the previous common law position was incorrect, they claim the present common law position is constitutionally sound. Thus the Constitution has in essence had no effect to date upon the balancing of competing rights in the law of defamation. Both courts have erred in according the right to freedom of expression too little weight. This may be due to three judicial errors. Firstly, they have under-appreciated that the values of dignity, equality and freedom fortify and are fortified by the right to freedom of expression. Aspects of dignity such as self-actualisation, self-governance and an acceptance that humans have intrinsic worth are heavily reliant on freedom of expression, particularly political expression. Secondly, while political expression lies at the core of freedom of expression, reputation lies nearer the periphery of the right to dignity. Rights at the core ought to trump competing but peripheral rights. Thirdly, erroneous statements are inevitable in free debate. Unless they too are protected, unacceptable self-censorship occurs. The correct approach is as a matter of policy, particularly regarding political expression, to balance the competing rights with one’s thumb on the free expression side of the scales. This seems the trend of the European Court of Human Rights in recent cases In Canada, an offence punishing libel made intentionally but without knowledge of its falsity was recently ruled unconstitutional. On the other hand, another offence punishing libel made with knowledge it was false, videlicet punishing the intentional publication of defamatory lies, was ruled constitutional. Criminal defamation clearly infringes upon the right to freedom of expression. For this infringement to pass constitutional muster it must be reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society. It fails the limitation test due to the lack of proportionality between its objective in protecting the right to an unimpaired reputation and the harm it does to the right to expression. There are three reasons: firstly the “chilling effect” of imprisonment, over and above pecuniary damages, unacceptably stifles free debate. Secondly, it may punish even the truth, yet protect a falsehood, since the truth per se is not a defence. An undeserved reputation is thus more highly valued than the publication of that truth. Finally there is a well-developed civil remedy that adequately protects the right to reputation of aggrieved persons. In the appeal concerning the constitutionality of the common law offence of criminal defamation, the Supreme Court of Appeal ought to find it unconstitutional.