Background: Previous research has reported positive correlations between perfectionism, anxiety and depression within community adolescent samples. Psychological distress has the potential to develop into adulthood; therefore consideration is required about potential mechanisms that could positively impact on this trajectory. Self-compassion has been shown to be negatively associated with psychopathology and positively related to psychological well-being. It has also been found to be inversely related to maladaptive perfectionism (negative aspects of perfectionism) in adult populations. No previous studies have examined both constructs of perfectionism and self-compassion in an adolescent population and what impact they may have on psychological distress and well-being. Aims: This research had two aims: 1. Conduct a systematic literature review exploring the relationship between perfectionism and anxiety/stress in young people; 2. Establish empirically whether perfectionism and self-compassion have a role in the prediction of psychological distress and psychological well-being in an adolescent population. Method: For the first aim a systematic review of the literature was conducted to identify studies that explored the relationships between perfectionism and anxiety/stress in young people. Fourteen papers were identified which were subsequently subjected to methodological appraisal using quality criteria. To address the second aim an empirical study was conducted. It was a cross-sectional, quantitative design using self-report surveys, in an adolescent population (n=128; 64.1% female, mean age 16.24 years) across schools in Edinburgh. Results: The results of the systematic review suggested that there is a significant relationship between perfectionism and anxiety and/or stress in young people; however, some inconsistent results were found between the perfectionism subtypes and their impact on anxiety. Methodologically, the studies held good internal validity, but external validity was poor meaning that the ability to generalise findings beyond the remit of the studies was questionable. The results of the empirical study demonstrated a significant relationship between perfectionism and self-compassion and a subsequent relationship with psychological distress and psychological well-being in the adolescent population. An interaction effect between perfectionism and self-compassion was also established for some of the variables, with self-compassion playing a particularly significant role in this relationship. Conclusions: Overall, there is evidence to suggest a link between perfectionism and psychopathology in adolescents. The factors of perfectionism and self-compassion demonstrated a significant relationship, with both constructs having an impact on psychological well-being in particular. Self-compassion demonstrated a strong predictive relationship to both psychological distress and psychological well-being. The significant findings regarding self-compassion in particular suggest that it may be a potential strategy for working with young people (either clinically or in academic settings) who experience psychological distress related to perfectionistic tendencies. Further research exploring perfectionism and self-compassion and the link with psychopathology in adolescents is much needed. In particular, studies are required which attempt to focus on this area with alternative designs (non cross-sectional), different methodologies and various clinical and non-clinical adolescent populations.

I studien undersöks begreppet compassion och dess samband med upplevd kvalitet i kamratrelationer samt hur dessa kan predicera depressionssymtom hos gymnasieungdomar. Compassion, att lida med sig själv och andra samt att agera på detta, är en viktig faktor för att minska psykisk ohälsa. Data från gymnasieungdomar (N = 209, 15 – 18 år) samlades in genom självskattningsinstrumenten: Compassion Engagement and Action Scale- Youth (CEAS-Y), Patient Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS), Peer Relations (Kamratrelationer), Becks depressionsindex (BUS-D) och Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS). Insamlingen av data skedde elektroniskt via Textalk Websurvey. Den statistiska analysen presenteras i form av Pearson’s korrelationskoefficient (r) och 2 multipla linjära regressioner. Resultatet visar att de tre olika delskalorna i CEAS-Y; Compassion för sig själv, Compassion för andra och Compassion från andra korrelerar positivt och signifikant med varandra. Effekten på korrelationerna, svag-medelstark, indikerar att skalorna är relaterade, men ändå mäter olika aspekter av begreppet compassion. Kamratrelationer korrelerar positivt signifikant med alla delskalorna i CEAS-Y. Resultatet visar att Compassion för sig själv och Kamratrelationer kan förklara variationen i depressionssymtom skattade med RCADS statistiskt signifikant, medan samma variabler tillsammans med Compassion för andra kan förklara depressionssymtom skattade med BUSD. Det är troligt att det finns en växelverkan mellan kamratrelationer och compassion där variablerna övas och utvecklas tillsammans. Studien konstaterar att kamratrelationer och compassion är viktiga skyddande faktorer vid depressiva symtom hos gymnasieungdomar. / The aim of this study is to examine the concept of compassion and its correlation with perceived quality of peer relations and how these two variables can predict depression among youths (N = 209, 15 - 18 year). Compassion - a sensitivity to suffering in self and others with a commitment to act on it - is an important factor to sustain mental health. 4 self-report measures were utilized: Compassion Engagement and Action Scale- Youth (CEAS-Y), Patient Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Peer Relations, Becks Youth Inventory-Depression (BUS-D) and Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS). Data was gathered electronically through Textalk Websurvey. To statistically analyze data, Pearson correlation coefficient (r) and multiple linear regression was used. Results states that the 3 subscales in CEAS-Y; Compassion for self, Compassion from others and Compassion for others, correlates significantly with a weak to moderate effect, which indicates that the scales measure different aspects of the concept compassion. Compassion for self and Peer relations predicted the variance in symptoms of depression measured with RCADS statistic significant, while the same variables together with Compassion for others predicted the variance in symptoms of depression measured by BUS-D statistic significant. To find out more about the direction of this correlations further research is needed. It is likely that there is a reciprocity between peer relations and compassion where compassion skills are trained in interpersonal relations and vice versa. Finally, this study imply that peer relations and compassion are important factors to prevent depression within youths.

Shame is a complex emotion and often discussed with reluctance; these feelings are usually incapacitating and unbearable. In this thesis, four studies explored aspects of shame vulnerability and shame management. First, a cross-sectional study (n = 240) was carried out to assess factors contributing to the experience of shame. This study demonstrated that negative self-judgment and submissive coping strategies accounted for a significant variance in shame above and beyond the effects of recall of adverse childhood experiences, and that negative self-judgment fully mediated the relationship between recall of childhood experiences and shame. The second study (n = 140 and n = 415) examined the underlying factor structure of a new measure: the Acceptance of Shame and Embarrassment Scale (ASES). Factor analysis in both samples revealed that the ASES had good internal consistency and construct validity. Thirdly, a cross sectional study (n = 159) considered self-compassion and mindfulness as methods of shame management and demonstrated that mindful and self-compassionate were significantly and negatively correlated with the experience of shame. In addition, this study showed that self-compassion fully mediated the mindfulness-shame relationship. The final experimental study (n = 120) assessed the effect of shame on mind wandering. Participants were assigned to shame, pride, or control conditions, and mind wandering during a subsequent reading task was measured using retrospective and behavioural methods. Inducing feelings of shame did not have a significant effect on mind wandering. Overall, these studies suggested that (a) adverse childhood experiences were significantly associated with negative self-judgment and shame, (b) adopting submissive coping strategies is likely to increase the chance of shame vulnerability, (c) the Acceptance of Shame and Embarrassment Scale had promising psychometric properties for assessing acceptance of shame and embarrassment experiences, (d) self-compassion mediated the relationship between mindfulness and shame, and (e) inducing feelings of shame did not have a significant effect on mind wandering.

Systematic Review - Recent studies have identified potential change within interpersonal relationships following mindfulness-based interventions such as MBSR and MBCT; however, few studies have explored this in a clinical sample, from the participants’ perspective. This study aimed to explore this phenomenon by synthesising qualitative studies to answer the following question: How do people with a mental health diagnosis experience interpersonal change following MBSR and MBCT. A systematic search strategy identified 117 studies, of which 12 met the final inclusion criteria. A thematic synthesis was conducted based on the protocol developed by Thomas and Harden (2008). The thematic synthesis revealed an overall theme of connection, with subthemes of ‘the group as a community’; ‘reconnecting with the self’; ‘skill development’ and ‘reconnecting with others’. These themes were further synthesised to consider the interconnections between them. This revealed two points of interest: the power of the group community and intra- to inter-personal development. These themes were explored in relation to existing literature. The results are discussed in relation to the limitations of the study, and future research recommendations are considered. Empirical Paper - Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) have been shown to be effective in reducing the impact of cognitive reactivity (CR) and improving outcomes for people with recurrent depression. It has been proposed that this effect may be mediated by the cultivation of self-compassion; however, there is limited research into this mechanism. This study aimed to explore the lived experience of a sad mood induction and compassionate repair in people with currently remitted recurrent depression, with and without experience of MBCT. Sixteen participants were recruited (10 MBCT, six non-MBCT). Participants underwent a two-phase mood manipulation, sad mood induction and loving-kindness meditation (directed to a loved one and the self) and completed self-report measures before and after each task. Following this, participants engaged in a semi-structured interview exploring their experiences. The results showed both mood manipulations were successful, and mood repair was apparent within all but one of the participants. The interviews were analysed using thematic analysis, identifying six key themes: vulnerability versus tolerance of depression; immersion versus transience of cognitive and emotional reactivity; avoidance versus tolerance of compassion; self-criticism versus self-acceptance; locus of control and mechanisms of repair. No differences were observed between the two groups in their qualitative or quantitative responses to the mood manipulations; however, those in the MBCT group with a greater level of current MBCT practice, appeared more able to transcend negative thinking and utilise the Loving Kindness Meditation (LKM) more effectively for both themselves and others. The results are discussed in relation to study limitations and their implication to clinical practice.

Setting and monitoring progress on personal goals has potential advantages for helping people achieve their goals. However, it may also have disadvantages for both goal progress and personal well-being if people start to focus on progress and external outcomes (e.g. academic grades) more than internal processes (e.g. interest in the subject). Self-compassion has been suggested as a trait that may help people cope with set-backs, maintain intrinsic motivation and achieve their goals. It may therefore be particularly helpful in overcoming some of the disadvantages of setting and monitoring personal goals. Self-compassion has previously been theoretically differentiated from self-esteem, with self-esteem seen as more contingent on positive self-judgements and success, suggesting that self-compassion may have additional benefits for maintaining individuals’ intrinsic motivation. The aim of this study was therefore to test whether self-compassion exercises are more helpful than self-esteem exercises in the context of setting and monitoring goals. This was tested using a between group experimental design with two conditions: self-compassion and self-esteem. Ninety-four university students were randomly assigned to one of the conditions and followed a four-week goal setting and monitoring programme in relation to both an academic and social goal. The data showed that both inductions resulted in an increase in state self-compassion and self-esteem. There was no difference between the conditions in achievement of either goal over the four weeks. There was also no difference between conditions in the weekly association between poor progress and negative affect or change in goal commitment and autonomous motivation over the four weeks. However, the self-compassion condition was rated as more pleasant than the self-esteem condition. The results suggest that the self-compassion exercises used may be more acceptable than the self-esteem exercises used but they are not better than the self-esteem exercises for enhancing goal pursuit. The study suggests that further research is needed to distinguish the motivational effects of self-compassion and self-esteem.

Self-compassion is increasingly recognised as beneficial in psychotherapy, but can also be experienced as threatening. Attachment priming has been shown to enhance affiliative behaviours even in those with insecure trait attachment styles, and to decrease arousal and threat sensitivity. The current study investigated (a) associations between self-criticism, self-compassion, fear of self-compassion and trait attachment insecurity, and (b) whether attachment-related security priming could promote state self-compassion and reduce physiological arousal when self-compassion induction was attempted by self-critical individuals. 49 participants with high levels of self-reported self-criticism completed either a 'secure' or a 'neutral' prime before undertaking a loving-kindness meditation. Participants' heart rate and skin conductance levels were collected at baseline and during the priming and meditation; participants also self-rated their levels of state self-criticism, state self-compassion and state attachment security at each of these points. Correlational analyses (Spearman's rho) found positive associations between trait self-criticism and trait attachment insecurity and between trait fear of self-compassion and trait attachment insecurity, although not between low trait self-compassion and trait attachment insecurity. Group and time differences were analysed using a combination of parametric (ANOVA, t-test) and non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U-test, Kruskal Wallis, Wilcoxon Signed Rank) as some data were not normally distributed). Attachment priming was shown to significantly enhance state self-compassion and also to significantly increase state attachment security and decrease state attachment avoidance, although not state self-criticism or state attachment anxiety, and to give some reductions in physiological arousal. This benefit, however, did not persist in subsequent exposure to loving-kindness meditation, although individuals not receiving attachment priming also showed some reduction of threat and activation of soothing systems from loving-kindness meditation. These findings suggest that attachment priming and loving-kindness meditation may increase self-compassion for some self-critical people, but there are not necessarily cumulative benefits from combining these practices.

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) on flow state and self-compassion in musicians while practicing. Specifically, the following research questions were addressed: (1) What effects, if any, will MBSR have on musicians' flow state and self-compassion during individual practice? and (2) What is the relationship between the constructs of flow and self-compassion? A two-group pre-test/post-test experimental design was used to address these research questions. Participants (N = 63) included students enrolled in an ensemble at a large comprehensive university in the Pacific Northwest. Results from a repeated measure ANOVA found non-significant changes in flow and self-compassion. Additionally, analysis from a Pearson’s Correlation found non-significant correlations between flow and self-compassion. Further implications from this study have the potential to aid music teachers with a better understanding of some methods and techniques to help students improve their focus and attention while playing music.

Self-compassion and self-forgiveness appear to have much in common, as both relate to one’s self-regard during challenging circumstances; however, their empirical relationship is largely yet to be explored. The present study examines theoretical and empirical areas of overlap and proposes a theory of their relationship, including its possible impact on health. Self-compassion and self-forgiveness were proposed to have a direct relationship that may be mediated by reduction in rumination, shame, and experiential avoidance. These factors together were also hypothesized to have a positive impact on health functioning. The current study tested these models in a sample of undergraduate students (n = 199). In parallel mediation analysis, selfcompassion and self-forgiveness were related to one another and this association was partially mediated by shame, only. As such, neither rumination nor experiential avoidance were included in subsequent analyses. In serial mediation analyses, self-compassion, shame, and selfforgiveness were found to affect health outcomes in various ways. For psychological distress, the association of self-compassion was partially mediated by shame and self-forgiveness, in an indistinguishable fashion. For mental health status, self-compassion was found to have a significant direct effect, only. For both somatic symptoms (full mediation) and physical health status (indirect only effect), the association of self-compassion operated through self-forgiveness both alone and linked with shame. As these two emerging areas in the psychological literature continue to mature, researchers should prioritize both integration between and nuances within these constructs in order to develop a more complete understanding of self-compassion, selfforgiveness, and their implications for health.

abstract: This quasi-experimental, concurrent, mixed method, action research study sought to evaluate how an elective 1-credit course informed by mindfulness and culturally sustaining pedagogy influenced honors students’ academic self-efficacy, self-compassion, and their meaning-making about what it means to be an honors student. Theoretical perspectives and research guiding the study included: academic self-efficacy, culturally sustaining pedagogy, mindfulness, and third space. Drawing from these perspectives, the 9-week Creative Compassion course utilized poetry and rap as a way to enact culturally sustaining pedagogy and also as a vehicle for students to practice mindfulness. Findings from quantitative data from pre- and post- surveys of a treatment and control population, as well as qualitative data (open-ended survey questions, focus groups, and student artifacts) from the treatment population are presented here. This study revealed the following: practices informed by culturally sustaining pedagogy positively impacted students’ mindfulness, these same practices allowed for the creation of a third space within the classroom, and improving student self-compassion should be an increased priority. Additional implications for research and practice are also presented. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Leadership and Innovation 2019

abstract: Traditionally when the topic of secondary traumatic stress (STS) is discussed, it is often in regard to medical professionals and first responders. People who have STS or compassion fatigue, as it has been renamed, have been defined as people who are dealing with traumatic stress and/or emotional burdens via their “patients.” This study, conducted at a major university in the southwest, measured educators’ perceptions of the extent of their compassion fatigue using the Professional Quality of Life Scale (ProQOL) before and after a voluntary online support training during last four weeks of the semester. Educators who were full time scored better than the educators who worked part time on the three components of the Compassion Fatigue Scale. Results from this study suggest that additional training surrounding compassion fatigue may be needed in the future. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Educational Leadership and Policy Studies 2019