No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

This paper presents a case study from Ngamiland, northern Botswana where community~ based natural resource management (CBNRM), through a joint venture agreement (NA) between a Community~based Organisation (CBO) and the private sector for nonconsumptive tourism has been implemented with the objective of contributing to localised poverty alleviation and livelihood diversification through employment and CBO fee revenue. The economic contribution of these benefits is considered with respect to commonly accepted norms and standards within the development ideology of sustainable development and its global measurements; therefore, a brief background of the concepts of poverty, livelihood and ecotourism is presented to provide context for the evaluation of CBNRM as a preferred land~use in Botswana. An evaluation of the significance of wage employment revenue and consequent remittances in the specific case study is intended to contribute to existing studies which have primarily emphasised the contribution of CBO fee revenue only to households. It is concluded that wage employment revenue makes a significant contribution at a household level to localised poverty alleviation and livelihood diversification compared to the insignificant contribution ofCBO fee revenue. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Within wetland rehabilitation projects there has been limited research that focuses on the level and nature of participation by local people, such as individuals from communal areas and landowners from private farms. The overall aim of this study was to analyze the level and nature of participation with specific reference to the holistic long term management and sustainability of wetland rehabilitation projects in Hlatikulu and Ntsikeni, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed in this study to examine the level of stakeholder participation in the projects. The Hlatikulu and Ntsikeni projects were undertaken on private land and government land (nature reserve) respectively. The World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) Framework was applied to analyze the level and nature of participation by different stakeholders that were involved in the selected projects. The study revealed that not all stakeholder groups participated in each and every phase of the projects. In Hlatikulu there was a moderate level of participation from the management of private land, but a limited degree of local participation from the Nsonge community. This, to some extent is attributed to the lack organization in the Nsonge community. There are no structures or authorities through which the process of local participation can be engaged. In Ntsikeni, although the process of continuous local involvement was limited to local Chiefs and some community representatives, the process appeared to be participatory in nature. The selected representatives report back in community meetings and other relevant forums, such as the Ntsikeni Nature Reserve Management Forum, which has been operating successfully for several years. Local people participated in the rehabilitation projects mainly as paid workers, and also in providing advice in the planning processes. For both sites, the results demonstrated that there is a need to enhance and harness active local participation in order to ensure the long term management and sustainability of the Hlatikulu and Ntsikeni wetlands. Within this study, the WOCAT framework was applied to provide insights to two sites, with different land tenure and land use contexts. The results of this study suggest that the WOCAT framework has a high potential to be applied across a diversity wetland rehabilitation sites within South Africa. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Many developing countries, rich with natural resources, have turned to tourism as a source of national growth and subsequently an increasing amount of local communities are being "developed". Despite its importance to developing countries, tourism has been covered scarcely in the literature on development studies. Local communities that find themselves in a situation having to deal with tourism related development, face many challenges. Contrary to previous work on development which considered poor local communities a threat to the natural environment, current views emphasise the role of the community in bringing about participation, conservation and consequently Sustainable Development. Therefore, if tourism can be seen as a possible path to Sustainable Development, the role of the local community in its development is of vital importance. This research investigates the role of the local community in integrating conservation in tourism related development by means of a case study on Apo Island. / DEVELOPMENT STUDIES / MA(SS)(DEV. STUD)

Text in English / Biodiversity is a fundamental characteristic of life on Earth and encompasses the whole range of variation in living organisms. Lesotho has been subjected to tremendous biodiversity change over the last two centuries, primarily due to socio-economic activities. A number of socio-economic factors have contributed to the loss of biodiversity. However, worldwide experience has shown that, the consequences emanating from loss of biodiversity are sometimes irreversible as some species are threatened by extinction. The study aimed at exploring the impacts of socio-economic activities that result in loss of large game animals, predators and indigenous plants species in Lesotho. To serve this objective, both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies were used to collect data. Quantitative research method was used in pre-post tests whilst qualitative research method was used in interviews and focus group discussions to collect data. The finding and results of the study show that, impacts of human vectors such as immigration, migration, settlement, economic and recreation activities in Lesotho have the impacts to the loss of large game animals, predators and indigenous plants. It is imperative therefore, for Lesotho to find ways to establish more parks and botanic gardens that could offer opportunities for re-introduction of species in Lesotho, thus, adding value to the existing parks. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

The Botswana Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) programme started in 1989. Its aims were to promote sustainable development through sustainable natural resources management and utilisation to improve rural livelihoods. The country CBNRM programme has recorded mixed outcomes and this has raised questions on the programme performance throughout the country. Since the programme has been recognised as one of the eight main livelihood strategies for rural communities in Botswana, there was a need to evaluate the programme performance and determine the factors that influence it. This thesis therefore evaluated the performance of CBNRM projects along an aridity gradient in Botswana and by so doing answered the two research questions of: (1) What factors influence the performance of CBNRM? And (2) how does aridity influence the performance of CBNRM programmes? Performance was determined in terms of financial benefits generated by CBNRM projects and the projects adherence to the CBNRM principles. Data were collected from seven selected CBNRM projects covering three aridity zones (wet, medium rainfall and dry areas) in the country. Data were also collected from key informants and community based organisations (CBO) project managers. Research findings have indicated differences in the performance of CBNRM projects across the identified three aridity zones. Factors that influenced the performance of CBNRM projects varied among the three aridity zones. These factors included: existence of complimentary rules and regulations for managing CBNRM projects; literacy levels of communities involved in CBNRM; ethnic composition of the project communities; historic and current socio-economic trends within communities; collaboration between CBNRM institutions and other local level institutes; amount of benefits generated through the projects; ability of institutions to resolve outstanding issues in time and type of CBNRM project. Research results also indicated that there was variation in the performance of CBNRM projects across the three aridity zones. Aridity was found to directly influence the performance of CBNRM projects through its influence on the amount of revenues that projects generated.

The call of the wilderness resonates in all of our hearts, with the desire to get in touch with nature and experience wilderness at some level. This project gives the high school teacher the practical resources necessary to share the passion of being in the wilderness with high school students.

This paper outlines the current state of environmental legislation and administration in Botswana, identifying the various problems with that system. Those problems include fragmented and overlapping administration and out-dated legislation that is not in keeping with modem, holistic approaches to environmental management, ineffective and unreliable enforcement, compounded by rampant non-compliance. The paper then considers some the developments that are being made to improve this situation, including: the conversion of the environmental agency into a department and the introduction of an over-reaching environmental Act, preparation of a wetlands conservation strategy, the introduction of environmental impact assessment legislation. The paper concludes by querying the effectiveness of those developments when unsustainable attitudes continue to predominate in the country / Law / LL.M.

The study was done in Adaa district which is one of the 12 districts in East Shoa zone in Oromia regional state of Ethiopia. It is located southeast of Addis Ababa at 38o51’ 43.63’’ to 39o04’ 58.59’’ E and 8o46’ 16.20’’ to 8o59’ 16.38’’ N, on the western margin of the Great East African Rift Valley. The altitude ranges from 1 500 to ≥ 2 000 meters above sea level. The district has a high potential for mixed livestock and crop production systems. The purpose of this study was to make up for the paucity of information on livestock and environment interaction by assessing the relationship of livestock, soil, water, land, climate and crops under mixed crop-livestock production systems in central Ethiopian highlands. The objectives of the study were: (a) to assess the effect of change in land management on carbon storage and the contribution of livestock to carbon storage; (b) to examine the impact of livestock on natural resources and the environment; (c) to assess the effects of the change in traditional agricultural practices, expansion of factories, slaughter houses, greenhouses and flower farms on water and soil quality; (d) to evaluate the effect of climate change on livestock production under small-scale agriculture; and (e) to recommend options for mitigation and adaptation to environmental changes. The research design was non-experimental and did not involve the manipulation of the situation, circumstances or experiences of the interviewees. The design was comparative research that compared two or more groups on one or more variables, such as the effect of agricultural land use management, tillage type etc. on carbon storage in the soil. This research also applied a longitudinal design that examined variables such as the performance exhibited by groups over time. Purposive sampling was often used to measure the effect of agricultural, industrial effluent and human interferences on the environment by measuring nutrient contents at sources in the soil, water and manure. Biological data were complemented by key socio-economic survey by interviewing individual farmers and focus groups from sampling sites. Secondary data were also reviewed to measure soil degradation and run-off attributed to livestock. Results showed that animal waste and farmyard manure had the highest contribution in the addition of carbon in the soil. This implied that for most of carbon inputs livestock products and by-products had a greater place in the carbon sink. Therefore, livestock production could be considered as one of the major agricultural production systems in soil carbon storage. Similarly, livestock production systems also play an important role in maintaining the eco-system balance through nutrient recycling. On the average, the number of livestock per household for most species increased during the Derge regime in the 1990s compared to the Haile Sellassie regime in the 1970s when people did not own land; and then the number declined in the 2000s except for equines, crossbreeds and oxen. The change to crop intensification led to the change in the purpose for livestock keeping. Farmers started keeping certain types of animals for specific purposes unlike before when livestock was kept for prestige and economic security. The major drive for the change of attitude towards the purpose of keeping livestock was scarcity of resources, mainly feed and water. Equine ownership has significantly increased due to their low off-take rate and their feeding habits which allowed them to survive in harsh environments where feed resources were extremely scarce. There was a significant difference in crop response to manure application. Vegetables produced higher yields with manure than chemical fertilizers. Cereals on the other hand responded more to chemical fertilizers than to manure. Therefore, combining manure and chemical fertilizers was the best option for the sustainability of crop production in the study area. Some of the limitations to the use of manure as an organic fertilizer were inadequate manure production, high labour cost, bulkiness and high cost of transport to the fields and weed infestation. Manure management systems in the study area were affected by livestock husbandry practices. Only crossbred cattle (5%) were zero-grazed and used; and manure was stored in pits as slurry. Indigenous cattle were grazed outdoors in the fields during the day and at night they were kept in kraals near homesteads. There was a substantial loss of nutrients during the day when animals were grazing in the fields through leaching and trampling of dung and urine patches. Indoor or zero grazing of livestock could reduce nutrient losses. The use of manure as fuel in the study area had no significant effect on CO2 emissions at household or local level, but had a negative impact on soil organic carbon storage and soil fertility. Therefore, for improved yield and balanced eco-systems manure burning has to be replaced by other alternative energy sources such as bio-gas and kerosene. The largest carbon equivalent emissions were from CH4 (72.6%), N2O (24%) and CO2 (3.4%) which indicated the need to improve livestock and manure management systems under smallholder agriculture. Overall, there was an indication of a decline in water resources on per capita basis. The major contributing factors were combined pressure of human and animal population on natural resources that led to excessive deforestation, loss of biological diversity, overgrazing, soil degradation and various forms of pollution and contamination. The global climate change also played a role in the decline in water resources due to the decrease in annual precipitation and increasing temperatures. Urbanization and economic growth increased the demand for milk and meat, which required additional water use for each unit of increased animal protein. The demand for milk and meat is expected to double in the next 20 years with an annual growth rate of between 2.5 to 4%. From the sixty-year meteorological data (1951-2009) there was an established increase in rainfall by 2% per annum; and maximum and minimum temperature by 0.08oC per decade, which amounted to a cumulative temperature increase of 0.5oC in the last decade. The increase in precipitation and temperature favoured the adaption of lowland crops like maize and sorghum to highland agro-ecology. Climate prediction models forecasted that most of the highlands in Ethiopia will remain suitable for cereals like wheat and Teff for the next 50 to100 years. However, the perception of farmers indicated that they felt more heat and warm weather than they have experienced before. They reported that rainfall is now more erratic or comes late and stops earlier before plants completed their vegetative growth. / Environmental Sciences / D. Litt. et Phil. (Environmental Science)

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this era of globalisation, the world is becoming more economically, politically and ecologically interdependent, that is, there is a growing mutual vulnerability between actors. The conditions of growing interdependence produce specific challenging circumstances for the achievement of particular goals, -includinq that of sustainable development. The Southern African context holds further obstacles to such development, which include poverty, inequality, a history of racial conflict and colonialism, and a regional economy on the semi-periphery of the global economy. It is my assertion that it is in the mutual self-interest of states and other stakeholders (e.g. communities) to approach this dilemma through transnational co-operation under the ethical umbrella of sustainable development. Thus this thesis seeks to discover to what extent the construction of Transborder Conservation Areas (TBCAs), relatively large areas which straddle the borders between two or more countries and cover natural systems incorporating one or more protected areas, can meet the criteria of sustainable development, given these conditions. The three primary criteria used for measuring sustainable development are community-based development; close linkages between the environment and development; and co-operation on all levels. The Kgalagadi TBCA, formally recognised on the 7th of April 1999 between South Africa and Botswana, serves as the case study. The conceptual framework used for the analysis is a theory of cooperation, as it applies to the field of International Relations. The key concepts employed here are those of interdependence, co-operation, sustainable development and institutionalisation. The research centers around three key issues: If sustainable development is the way forward for Southern Africa, do TBCAs reflect and fulfill the criteria as set forth by sustainable development? What does the experience of TBCAs in Southern Africa tell us about co-operation, recognising that TBCAs can only succeed if it has a sound base in the awareness and engagement of people? And, how best can decision-makers go about establishing TBCAs? Ultimately the thesis is a call to Southern African countries to embrace this new form of utilising the environment. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie era van globalisering is die wêreld besig om ekonomies, polities en ekologies meer interafhanklik te word, met ander woorde, daar is 'n toenemende wedersydse kwesbaarheid tussen akteurs. Toenemende interafhanklikheid produseer spesifieke uitdagings ten opsigte van die bereiking van sekere doelwitte, insluitend volgehoue ontwikkeling. Daar is besondere hindernisse op die weg na volgehoue ontwikkeling in Suidelike Afrika, is byvoorbeeld armoede, ongelykheid, en verlede gekenmerk deur rassekonflik en kolonialisme, asook en regionale ekonomie op die semi-periferie van die globale ekonomie. Dit is in die wedersydse belang van state en ander betrokke partye (bv. gemeenskappe) om hierdie dilemma te benader deur middel van transnasionale samewerking onder die etiese sambreel van volgehoue ontwikkeling. Hierdie tesis probeer vasstel tot watter mate die skep van Transnasionale Bewaringsgbiede, of sogenaamde "Vredesparke" (Transborder Conservation Areas = TBCAs), d.w.s. relatiewe groot areas aan weerskante van die grens(-e) tussen twee of meer lance en wat natuurlike stelsels dek wat ten minste een beskermde gebied inkorporeer, kan voldoen aan die kriteria vir volgehoue ontwikkeling, gegewe die bogenoemde konteks. Die drie primêre kriteria wat gebruik word om volgehoue ontwikkeling te meet is gemeenskapsgebaseerde ontwikkeling; die hegtheid van die verhouding tussen die omgewing en ontwikkeling; en samewerking op alle vlakke. Die Kgalagadi TBCA, amptelik op 7 April 1999 tussen Suid-Afrika en Botswana erken, dien as die gevallestudie. Die konseptueie raamwerk wat gebruik word in die analise is 'n teorie van samewerking, soos dit van toepassing is op die veld van Internasionale Betrekkinge. Die sleutelkonsepte wat gebruik word is interafhanklikheid, samewerking, volgehoue ontwikkeling en institusionalisering. Die navorsing sentreer rondom drie sleutelkwessies: lndien volgehoue ontwikkeling die weg vorentoe vir Suidelike Afrika is, weerspiëel en voldoen TBCAs aan die vereistes van volgehoue ontwikkeling? Wat kan ons wys raak oor samewerking na aanleiding van ons ervaring van TBCAs in Suidelike Afrika, gegewe dat TBCAs slegs kan slaag indien dit gefundeer is op gemeenskapsbewustheid- en deelname? Laastens, wat is die beste manier waarvolgens besluitnemers TBCAs kan vestig? Ten slotte is hierdie studie 'n beroep op die besluitnemers In Suidelike Afrika om hierdie nuwe wyse waarop die omgewing benut kan word, te ondersteun.