Fast bowlers are especially prone to injury as they perform their bowling techniques repetitively at very high intensities. The fast bowling action in the past has been described as a highly explosive activity that produces high levels of stress and strain on the body. The aim of this study was to compile an injury profile of 46 fast bowlers aged 11 to 18, and to identify the associated risk factors for injury during an academy cricket season. A descriptive correlational research design was utilised. Subjects were selected according to age and fast bowling ability. These subjects were observed for one academy cricket season (March to November). Three testing sessions occurred during this time (T1, T2 and T3). Each subject completed two questionnaires: i) bowler history (at T1) and ii) injury history (at T1, T2, and T3). These assisted in grouping the subjects according to their responses into one of three injury classifications (uninjured = S1; injured but able to play = S2; injured and unable to play = S3). Anthropometric and postural data for the entire group of fast bowlers were also collected pre-season (T1). Physical fitness screenings were also conducted during each of the three testing sessions to establish any relationship between the fitness of each fast bowler and the occurrence of injuries. Additional factors assessed during the season were bowling techniques and bowling workload. Statistical significance was indicated by p-values less than .05 (p< .05), while practical significance was indicated by either Cohen’s d-values of 0.2 or better (d>0.2) for tests based on sample means or Cramer’s V for tests based on sample frequencies, the values of which depend on the applicable degrees of freedom. All fitness scores as well as bowling workload figures for each testing session were converted to standard T-scores and these in turn were summated to derive overall fitness and workload T-scores. ‘TT’ indicated the overall average score for the entire season. Changes in performances, bowling workload and injury status were analysed using ANOVA and ANCOVA. A regression analysis was also conducted to analyse the relationship between bowling workload and weeks incapacitated. This study found that hyperextension in the knees had the highest incidence of postural deviation injury (43 percent) followed by winged scapula (39 percent). Only 15 percent of the fast bowlers remained injury-free for the duration of the season, while 35 percent of the subjects were at some stage injured to such an extent that they were unable to play. The incidence of serious injury (S3) showed a statistical and moderate practical (V=0.23, d.f. ≥2) significant increase throughout the data collection period (4 percent at T1 to 30 percent at T3). The most common injury was to the knee (41 percent) followed by those to the lower back (37 percent). These injuries occurred mostly during test periods T2 and T3. The nature of injuries were predominantly strains and "other" which accounted for 39 percent of the injuries overall (TT) and had the highest reported incidence during the period T1 to T3. Sprains followed with an overall incidence of 14 percent. Less frequently reported injuries were tears, fractures, bruises and dislocations. The degree of severity of injuries was defined in terms of the number of weeks a player reported being incapacitated as a result of injury during the academy session. During midand end-season bowlers were on average incapacitated approximately one week out of every five due to injury. The statistics for the duration of the study translate to approximately one week incapacitated out of every seven weeks of play. When comparing the S1/S2 bowlers with the S3 group, the S1/S2 bowlers performed consistently better than the S3 bowlers in all the fitness variables tested. However no significant differences (p>.05) in either flexibility or muscle strength were observed. Of the risk factors analysed, bowling workload presented a statistically significant (p<.0005) increased risk for injury. A strong significant positive relationship (p<.0005, R²=.619) was found between weeks incapacitated and bowling workload, supporting the finding that increased bowling workloads show a linear relationship with the increase in the number of weeks incapacitated from normal play. This study concluded that inadequate fitness, high bowling workload and bowling technique all have a multi-factorial role in predisposing a bowler to increased risk for injury. These variables did not act alone, but have all contributed to recurring injuries. The bowling action alone would not have been detrimental if the workloads were not in excess of the recommended guidelines. Furthermore the workload would not have been as detrimental if the bowlers were well conditioned and uninjured. Management of minor injuries and adequate recovery time, coupled with adequate and relevant fitness preparation would better prepare fast bowlers for the demands of the game.

Cricket is one of Australia's most popular sports, both in terms of participation rates and spectator interest. However, as with all sports, participation in cricket can be associated with a risk of injury. Injury surveillance in Australia and internationally has consistently identified fast bowlers as the players at the greatest risk of injury. This clearly establishes fast bowlers as the priority group for continued risk factor research. The primary aim of this thesis is to describe the epidemiology of repetitive microtrauma injuries and identify the risk factors for these injuries to male adolescent and adult fast bowlers. The program of research consists of three sequential prospective cohort studies, which were conducted over four cricket seasons. The rate of injury was high in all these studies, with nearly half of the 305 bowlers sustaining an injury. The first of the three studies, which was conducted over three seasons, recruited 95 adult first-class fast bowlers and investigated bowling workload as a risk factor for injury. The findings suggested that there were thresholds for both low and high workload, beyond which the risk of injury increased. The second study recruited 47 adolescent high performance fast bowlers for one season, and identified a significant association between high bowling workload and injury. Based on the results of these two studies, workload guidelines for adult and adolescent fast bowlers are described in detail in this thesis. The third study expanded on the first two workload studies and concurrently investigated a range of potential injury risk factors relating to bowling workload, physical characteristics and bowling technique. A total of 91 adult and adolescent high performance fast bowlers participated in the third study for one season. Two independent predictors of injury were identified: increased hip internal rotation and reduced ankle dorsiflexion. This program of research has provided information that is essential for the development of evidence-based injury prevention guidelines for adolescent and adult fast bowlers. The next stage in the injury prevention process is to implement measures that control the exposure to the injury risk factors identified in this thesis.

Thesis Ph.D.) - University of Queensland, 2005. / Includes bibliography.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / Bibliography. Also available via the Internet.

Background: Literature has associated repeated eccentric muscle actions with increased muscle damage of the muscles involved. Eccentric actions are typical in sports which are ‘stop-start’ in nature requiring rapid acceleration and deceleration, typical of a batting activity in cricket. Ultra-structural damage of the skeletal muscle as a consequence of repeated decelerating activities is associated with performance decrements, particularly muscle strength and sprinting speeds. This suggests that eccentric strength decrements may provide an indication for the development of muscle strain injuries during these activities. Despite these findings, limited research has identified the specific musculoskeletal demands placed on cricket batsmen, particularly with reference to various match intensities. Objective: The present study, therefore, sought to determine the specific musculoskeletal, physiological and perceptual demands placed on specialised batsmen during two work bouts of different intensities; one representing a highintensity work bout and the other a moderate-intensity work bout. The dependent variables of interest were muscle activation, isokinetic strength changes, heart rate, ‘central’ and ‘local’ ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), body discomfort and performance. Methods: The two experimental conditions, representative of a high- (HVR) and moderate-volume running (MVR) batting protocol, required players to perform a simulated batting work bout of either twelve or six runs an over, within a laboratory setting. Selected physiological, perceptual and performance measures were collected at specific time intervals throughout the work bout while the biophysical measures were collected prior to, and following both protocols. Results: Of the variables measured, heart rate, ‘central’ and ‘local’ RPE values were observed to increase significantly (p<0.05) over time. This increase was greater as a consequence of the HVR in comparison to the MVR. No change in sprint times was documented during the MVR, in contrast, significant (p<0.05) increases over time were observed during the HVR, further highlighting the elevated demands associated with this condition. In addition, an ‘end spurt’ was observed particularly following the HVR condition, suggesting athletes were conserving themselves through the adoption of a pacing strategy. Reductions in biceps femoris and semitendinosus muscle activation levels were observed following the HVR. This was further supported by the significantly greater levels of semitendinosus activation following the MVR when compared to the HVR. Peak concentric and eccentric knee extensor (EXT) (-17.17% and -16.07% respectively) and eccentric flexor (FLEX) (- 17.49%) values decreased significantly (p<0.05) following the HVR at 60°.s-1. In addition, concentric and eccentric total work produced by the flexors and eccentric extensors resulted in significantly (p<0.05) lower values due to the HVR. Conclusion: The intermittent high-volume batting work bout elicited elevated mean heart rates, perceived ratings of cardiovascular and muscular effort and sprint times. Furthermore, hamstring activation levels and muscle strength, particularly concentric strength of the dominant lower limb were negatively affected by the HVR condition. These results suggest elevated demands were placed on the hamstring musculature as a consequence of the HVR condition, indicating a greater degree of musculoskeletal strain and increased injury risk associated with running between the wickets at this intensity, representative of an aggressive batting scenario.

Thesis (MScPhysio)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Aim: The aim of the study was to improve understanding of the hip joint kinematics in cricket fast bowlers and to ascertain whether a relationship exists between hip joint biomechanical parameters, including kinematics, ROM characteristics and lumbar symptoms. Study design: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted. Participants: Sixteen adult male fast bowlers between the ages of 18 and 40 years old, playing first-club league, were featured in the study. Main outcome measures: To obtain data with regards to the training history, as well as the nature of lumbar-spine symptoms experienced by the cricket fast bowlers, a newly designed questionnaire was compiled. For analysis of the front foot hip joint ROM and kinematics, the biomechanical equipment used included: a two-dimensional Canon MV950 Digital Video Camcorder, a Kodak EasyShare C310 camera and XSENS Motion Tracking equipment (Xsens Technologies B. V., Enschede, Netherlands). Results: Eight of the sixteen bowlers in our study experienced LBP in the season with seven of these bowlers presenting with recent symptoms most of which are experienced after bowling a spell and described as “tightness” or a “stabbing pain” in the lower back. Intensity of LBP ranged between 1/10 to 8/10. Front foot hip joint kinematics of fast bowlers showed highly individualised patterns of movement between different subjects. Medium amplitude movements in the flexion/extension as well as the rotation plane of movement showed a significant difference in bowlers with- and without LBP. No significant differences between groups with LBP and without LBP were found in the three passive hip ROM measurements. Conclusions: It has proved to be very difficult to improve the understanding of the front foot hip biomechanics in cricket fast bowlers due to the high inter-subject variability. Variability in movement patterns remains under-researched by sports biomechanics. Although decreased hip mobility could alter mechanical forces transmitted to the lumbar spine and therefore predispose or be a causative factor in LBP development, this study found no significant relation between these parameters. The sample size was very small in this study which will influence the validity of results. Our study confirmed the high incidence of LBP and preventative efforts for bowlers should therefore be strongly supported. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Doelwit: Die doelwit van die studie was om die heupgewrig kinematika van krieket snelboulers beter te verstaan en om vas te stel of daar ‘n verwantskap bestaan tussen heupgewrig biomeganiese parameters, insluitende kinematika, omvang van beweging karakter en lumbale simptome. Studie ontwerp: ‘n Deursneë beskrywende studie is onderneem. Deelnemers: Sestien volwasse manlike snelboulers tussen die ouderdomme van 18 en 40 jaar oud wat eerste liga speel maak deel uit van die studie. Hoof uitkoms maatreëls: ‘n Nuut ontwerpte vraelys is opgestel om data aangaande oefen geskiedenis sowel as aard van lumbale simptome wat deur krieket snelboulers ervaar word in te samel. Die biomeganiese apparaat wat gebruik is vir die analiese van die voorvoet heup omvang van beweging, sowel as die kinematika, sluit in: ‘n twee dimensionele Canon MV950 Digitale Video Camcorder, ‘n Kodak EasyShare C310 kamera en XSENS beweging volgende apparaat (Xsens Technologies B. V., Enschede, Netherlands). Resultate: Agt van die sestien boulers in ons studie het lae rug pyn in die seisoen ervaar. Sewe van die boulers het gepresenteer met onlangse simptome waarvan die meeste na ‘n bouler se boulbeurt ervaar is en beskryf was as ‘n “styfheid” of “steekpyn” in die lae rug. Die intensiteit van die lae rug pyn het gewissel tussen 1/10 en 8/10. Voorvoet heup kinematika van snelboulers het hoogs individualistiese patrone van beweging getoon tussen verskillende deelnemers. Medium amplitude bewegings in die fleksie/ekstensie sowel as die rotasie plein van beweging het ‘n beduidende verskil tussen boulers met- en sonder lae rug pyn getoon. Geen beduidende verskille tussen die groep met- en sonder rugpyn is gevind met die drie passiewe heup omvang van beweging meetings nie. Gevolgtrekkings: Dit blyk baie moelik te wees om die voorvoet heup biomeganika in krieket snelboulers beter te verstaan a.g.v. die hoë inter-deelnemer veranderlikheid. Veranderlikheid in bewegings patrone is nog nie genoeg nagevors deur sport biomeganici nie. Alhoewel ingekorte heup mobiliteit meganiese kragte wat deur die lumbale werwelkolom gaan kan wysig, en sodoende die ontwikkeling van lae rug pyn kan predisponeer of ‘n oorsakende faktor kan wees, het hierdie studie nie ‘n beduidende verwantskap tussen die parameters gevind nie. Die steekproef groote was baie klein en dit sal die geldigheid van die resultate beïnvloed. Ons studie het die hoë insidensie van lae rug pyn bevestig en pogings tot voorkomende maatreëls moet daarom ten sterkste ondersteun word.

Dissertation submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master's Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, 2009. / Objective: Literature has focused its efforts on professional cricket players and player related risk factors to injury with little information being available with regards to coaching / management and environmental risk factors to injury. Therefore, this study aimed to profile the injuries and risk factors in Premier League club cricketers in the greater Durban area. Methods: This was a prospective, cross-sectional based study, using a self-administered questionnaire, developed specifically for this research utilizing a focus group and pilot study. The questionnaire consisted of a demographics section, as well as an injury history and risk factor section. Letters of informed consent and questionnaire were distributed to 144 players / coaches for completion. Data was analysed using Pearson‟s correlation and t-tests. Results: A response rate of 70% (n=109) was achieved. Selected parameters from demographics, injury history and risk factors were found to be significantly related to current and / or previous injury. Conclusion: It is advised that coaches heed significant injury parameters in order to improve player health, decrease injury risk and decrease time out of play. Key words: Athletic injuries; questionnaires; cross-sectional study‟s; risk factors; sports; sports medicine; risk assessment; cricket.

Dissertation submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master’s Degree in Technology: Chiropractic at the Durban Institute of Technology, 2008. / Purpose Cricket fast bowlers are prone to the development of Myofascial pain syndrome and in particular active myofascial trigger points in their rotator cuff muscles of the shoulder joint (Scott, et al. 2001). This is due to the severe stresses placed upon the muscles, bones and joints of the shoulder as a result of the high velocity throwing action (Bartlett, et al.1996). In muscles containing active myofascial trigger points a decrease in the stretch range of motion as well as the maximal contractile force is noted, these two factors may negatively affect the speed at which a fast bowler deliver the ball (Travell, Simons and Simons, 1999). Dry needling is viewed as the most effective means of deactivating myofascial trigger points leading to in increase in both the contractile force and range of motion of the affected muscle, which could increase the speed at which the bowler delivers the ball (Wilks, 2003). The aim of the study was to determine the immediate effect of dry needling active myofascial trigger points of the rotator cuff on bowling speed in action cricket fast bowlers. Method The study consisted of 40 participants (randomly split into two equal groups of 20) each with shoulder pain of a myofascial origin. Group A (intervention group) received the dry needling intervention in their most tender active myofascial trigger point. While participants in Group B (control group) received no treatment. Bowling speeds were measured both before and after the intervention, to determine its effect on bowling speed. IV Data was entered into MS Exel spreadsheet and imported into SPSS version 15 (SPSS Inc.,Chicago, Iiiinois, USA), which was used for data analysis. Paticipants were evaluated on bowling speed, Algometer readings and Numerical pain rating Scale (NRS) both pre and post intervention. Participants were also asked if they believed the intervention increased, decreased or had no effect on their bowling speeds. Two sample t-test was used to compare baseline values between the groups. A repeated measure ANOVA was used to compare the rate of change of each outcome over time in the two groups. Pearson’s correlation analysis (intra-group) was used to assess the strength and magnitude of correlations of the changes in the outcomes. The McNemar – Bowker test and Weighted Cohen’s kappa statistics were calculated to assess agreement between perceived and actual levels of change. Results A significant treatment effect was observed in the intervention group were an increase in bowling speed, algometer readings as well a decrease in Numerical pain rating scale(NRS) scores was observed. There was also a perceived increase in the speed the participants delivered the ball in the intervention group. No significant changes were observed in the control group. The findings of this study indicate that dry needling as a treatment modality would be beneficial to fast bowlers in not only increasing their speeds but also the pain experienced as a result of active myofascial trigger points.

Dissertation submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master's Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, 2009. / Objective: Literature has focused its efforts on professional cricket players and player related risk factors to injury with little information being available with regards to coaching / management and environmental risk factors to injury. Therefore, this study aimed to profile the injuries and risk factors in Premier League club cricketers in the greater Durban area. Methods: This was a prospective, cross-sectional based study, using a self-administered questionnaire, developed specifically for this research utilizing a focus group and pilot study. The questionnaire consisted of a demographics section, as well as an injury history and risk factor section. Letters of informed consent and questionnaire were distributed to 144 players / coaches for completion. Data was analysed using Pearson‟s correlation and t-tests. Results: A response rate of 70% (n=109) was achieved. Selected parameters from demographics, injury history and risk factors were found to be significantly related to current and / or previous injury. Conclusion: It is advised that coaches heed significant injury parameters in order to improve player health, decrease injury risk and decrease time out of play. Key words: Athletic injuries; questionnaires; cross-sectional study‟s; risk factors; sports; sports medicine; risk assessment; cricket.

Dissertation submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master’s Degree in Technology: Chiropractic at the Durban Institute of Technology, 2008. / Purpose Cricket fast bowlers are prone to the development of Myofascial pain syndrome and in particular active myofascial trigger points in their rotator cuff muscles of the shoulder joint (Scott, et al. 2001). This is due to the severe stresses placed upon the muscles, bones and joints of the shoulder as a result of the high velocity throwing action (Bartlett, et al.1996). In muscles containing active myofascial trigger points a decrease in the stretch range of motion as well as the maximal contractile force is noted, these two factors may negatively affect the speed at which a fast bowler deliver the ball (Travell, Simons and Simons, 1999). Dry needling is viewed as the most effective means of deactivating myofascial trigger points leading to in increase in both the contractile force and range of motion of the affected muscle, which could increase the speed at which the bowler delivers the ball (Wilks, 2003). The aim of the study was to determine the immediate effect of dry needling active myofascial trigger points of the rotator cuff on bowling speed in action cricket fast bowlers. Method The study consisted of 40 participants (randomly split into two equal groups of 20) each with shoulder pain of a myofascial origin. Group A (intervention group) received the dry needling intervention in their most tender active myofascial trigger point. While participants in Group B (control group) received no treatment. Bowling speeds were measured both before and after the intervention, to determine its effect on bowling speed. IV Data was entered into MS Exel spreadsheet and imported into SPSS version 15 (SPSS Inc.,Chicago, Iiiinois, USA), which was used for data analysis. Paticipants were evaluated on bowling speed, Algometer readings and Numerical pain rating Scale (NRS) both pre and post intervention. Participants were also asked if they believed the intervention increased, decreased or had no effect on their bowling speeds. Two sample t-test was used to compare baseline values between the groups. A repeated measure ANOVA was used to compare the rate of change of each outcome over time in the two groups. Pearson’s correlation analysis (intra-group) was used to assess the strength and magnitude of correlations of the changes in the outcomes. The McNemar – Bowker test and Weighted Cohen’s kappa statistics were calculated to assess agreement between perceived and actual levels of change. Results A significant treatment effect was observed in the intervention group were an increase in bowling speed, algometer readings as well a decrease in Numerical pain rating scale(NRS) scores was observed. There was also a perceived increase in the speed the participants delivered the ball in the intervention group. No significant changes were observed in the control group. The findings of this study indicate that dry needling as a treatment modality would be beneficial to fast bowlers in not only increasing their speeds but also the pain experienced as a result of active myofascial trigger points.