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Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) is a very powerful laboratory technique for micro structure research which is similar to the small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and light scattering for microstructure investigations in various materials. In small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) technique, the neutrons are elastically scattered by changes of refractive index on a nanometer scale inside the sample through the interaction with the nuclei of the atoms present in the sample. Because the nuclei of all atoms are compact and of comparable size, neutrons are capable of interacting strongly with all atoms. This is in contrast to X-ray techniques where the X-rays interact weakly with hydrogen, the most abundant element in most samples. The SANS refractive index is directly related to the scattering length density and is a measure of the strength of the interaction of a neutron wave with a given nucleus. It can probe inhomogeneities in the nanometer scale from 1nm to 1000nm. Since the SANS technique probes the length scale in a very useful range, this technique provides valuable information over a wide variety of scientific and technological applications, including chemical aggregation, defects in materials, surfactants, colloids, ferromagnetic correlations in magnetism, alloy segregation, polymers, proteins, biological membranes, viruses, ribosome and macromolecules. Quoting the Nobel committee, when awarding the prize to C. Shull and B. Brockhouse in 1994: “Neutrons tell you where the atoms are and what the atoms do”. At NIST, there is a single beam of neutrons generated from either reactor or pulsed neutron source and selected by velocity selector. The beam passes through a neutron guide then scattered by the sample. After the sample chamber, there are 2D gas detectors to collect the elastic scattering information. SANS usually uses collimation of the neutron beam to determine the scattering angle of a neutron, which results in an even lower signal-to-noise ratio for data that contains information on the properties of a sample. We can analyze the data acquisition from the detectors and get the information on size, shape, etc. This is why we choose SANS as our research tool. The world’s top energy problems are security concerns, climate concerns and environmental concerns. So far, oil (37%) is still the No.1 fuel in world energy consumption (Oil 37%, Coal 25%, Bio-fuels 0.2%, Gas 23%, Nuclear 6%, Biomass 4%, Hydro 3%, Solar heat 0.5%, Wind 0.3%, Geothermal 0.2% and Solar photovoltaic 0.04%). Even more and more alternative energy: bio-fuels, nuclear and solar energy will be used in the future, but nuclear energy has a major safety issue after the Japanese Fukushima I nuclear accidents, and other energies contribute only a small percent. Thus, it is very important to improve the efficiency and reduce the population of petroleum products. There is probably one thing that we can all agree on: the world’s energy reserves are not unlimited. Even though it is limited, only 30% of the oil reserves is conventional oil, so in order to produce, transport, and refine of heavy crude oil without wasting huge amounts of energy, we need to reduce the viscosity without using high temperature stream heating or diluent; As more and more off-shore oil is exploited at that we need reduce the viscosity without increasing temperature. The whole petroleum consumed in U.S. in 2009 was 18.7 million barrels per day and 35% of all the energy we consumed. Diesel is one of the very important fossil fuel which is about 20% of petroleum consumed. Most of the world's oils are non-conventional, 15 % of heavy oil, 25 % of extra heavy oil, 30 % of the oil sands and bitumen, and the conventional oil reserves is only 30%. The oil sand is closely related to the heavy crude oil, the main difference being that oil sands generally do not flow at all. For efficient energy production and conservation, how to lower the liquated fuel and crude oil viscosity is a very important topic. Dr. Tao with his group at Temple University, using his electro or magnetic rheological viscosity theory has developed a new technology, which utilizes electric or magnetic fields to change the rheology of complex fluids to reduce the viscosity, while keeping the temperature unchanged. After we successfully reduced the viscosity of crude oil with field and investigated the microstructure changing in various crude oil samples with SANS, we have continued to reduce the viscosity of heavy crude oil, bunker diesel, ultra low sulfur diesel, bio-diesel and crude oil and ultra low temperature with electric field treatment. Our research group developed the viscosity electrorheology theory and investigated flow rate with laboratory and field pipeline. But we never visualize this aggregation. The small angle neutron scattering experiment has confirmed the theoretical prediction that a strong electric field induces the suspended nano-particles inside crude oil to aggregate into short chains along the field direction. This aggregation breaks the symmetry, making the viscosity anisotropic: along the field direction, the viscosity is significantly reduced. The experiment enables us to determine the induced chain size and shape, verifies that the electric field works for all kinds of crude oils, paraffin-based, asphalt-based, and mix-based. The basic physics of such field induced viscosity reduction is applicable to all kinds of suspensions. / Physics

The present study does not represent a general investigation of all the various divisions of the transportation phase of the petroleum industry but a very small segment of the industry, i.e., crude oil pipe lines. Rather than being an examination of the technical operations of the industry the study is directed towards a consideration of the instrumentalities of control of interstate pipe line facilities exercised at the hands of major or integrated companies.

Yes / Crude oil is an unrefined petroleum composed of wide range of hydrocarbon up to n‐C40+. However, there are also a percentage of light hydrocarbon components present in the mixture. Therefore, to avoid their flashing for safe storage and transportation, the live crude needs to be stabilized beforehand. This paper aims to find the suitable operating conditions to stabilize an incoming live crude feed to maximum true vapor pressure (TVPs) of 12 psia (82.7 kPa) at Terengganu Crude Oil Terminal, Malaysia. The simulation of the process has been conducted by using Aspen HYSYS. The obtained results illustrate that the simulation data are in good agreement with the plant data and in particular for the heavier hydrocarbons. For the lighter components, the simulation results overpredict the plant data, whereas for the heavier components, this trend is reversed. It was found that at the outlet temperature (85–90°C) of hot oil to crude heat exchanger (HX‐220X), the high‐pressure separator (V‐220 A/B) and the low‐pressure separator (V‐230 A/B) had operating pressures of (400–592 kPa) and (165–186 kPa), respectively, and the live crude was successfully stabilized to a TVP of less than 12 psia. The impact of main variables, that is, inlet feed properties, three‐phase separators operating pressure, and preheater train's performance on the product TVP, are also studied. Based on the scenarios analyzed, it can be concluded that the actual water volume (kbbl/day) has greater impact on the heat exchanger's duty; thus, incoming free water to Terengganu Crude Oil Terminal should be less than 19.5 kbbl/day (9.1 vol%) at the normal incoming crude oil flow rate of 195 (kbbl/day).

Master of Science / Geology / Matthew W. Totten / The most common practice of typing crude oils utilizes biomarkers to gain insight on the history of the oil. This practice only considers the organic chemistry of the oil, and does not consider the trace element concentrations within the oil. Rare earth element and other trace element concentrations in crude oil might provide further insight into the oil’s source and origin. This study analyzed REE and other trace metal concentrations of crude oil in the Spivey-Grabs field of south-central Kansas through analysis by ICP-MS and ICP-AES that, coupled with visual physical characteristics of oil and FT-IR analysis, could explain the reported “compartmentalization” of the field and provide insight on the origin of the oils. Analysis of physical characteristics of the crude oils suggested the presence of two types of oil, of differing viscosities, in the field. FT-IR confirmed the presence of these two oil types based on functional groups present in the oils. The existence of a high viscosity oil could potentially explain the compartmentalization behavior in the field. PAAS-normalized REE distribution patterns showed a general LREE enrichment, a positive cerium and negative europium anomaly, and a MREE and HREE depletion, but higher viscosity oils showed additional MREE and HREE enrichment. K/Rb values ranged from 2,864 to 44,118, with oils from mixed-viscosity wells having lower ratios overall. K/Rb values of Spivey-Grabs crude oils more closely resembled those of the Lansing-Kansas City formation than the K/Rb values of the Woodford shale and Mississippian formation of the Anadarko basin. Comparing the rare earth element distribution patterns and K/Rb values from this study to those of the Woodford shale suggests the Spivey-Grabs oil originated from a local source and not from the Woodford shale.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: World crude oil demand and production is set to increase in the long term and is projected to increase from 82 barrels per day in 2007 to an estimated 104 million barrels per day in 2030 according to the International Energy Agency. The environmental challenges posed by the current and projected increased future fuel use, with specific reference to air, aquatic and terrestrial impact, are driving producers and legislators to change fuel specifications and consequently fuel properties to be less harmful to the environment. Traditionally transportation fuels are produced through crude oil refining but in South Africa more than one third of the liquid fuels are produced synthetically through catalytic conversion of gassified coal via the Fischer-Tropsch process by Sasol. Diesel from syncrude is referred to as synthetic diesel and the refiner must blend various hydrocarbon streams, effectively tailoring the diesel to its final composition. Biodiesel from renewable sources like vegetable oils is considered environmentally more acceptable than petrodiesel because of its high biodegradability in the environment, lower sulphur and aromatic hydrocarbon content as well as lowered particulate content in the exhaust emissions. The present research was aimed at evaluating whether the composition of diesels derived from different feed stocks, that included coal, natural gas, crude oil and soybean oil, would influence its biodegradability and ecotoxicity. Acute aquatic tests that included freshwater fish, crustaceans, algae and marine bacteria were used to determine the acute toxicity of diesels. In addition, quantitative structure activity relationship models were used to estimate the biodegradation and ecotoxicity properties of the diesels in an attempt to develop a cost effective tool to determine those properties. The results indicated that the 2-D GC technique quantitatively and qualitatively identified the hydrocarbon constituents in the diesels. The relevance of using the 2-D GC technique was in identifying and quantifying the hydrocarbon breakdown products and being used in a mass balance to confirm the potential biological breakdown processes of the materials used in the present study. The differences in theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD) of the different experimental diesel blends using various blending materials and biodiesel, emphasised and confirmed the importance of calculating the ThOD for the respective blending materials when measuring the biodegradation rates. Furthermore, the biodegradation hierarchy of Pitter and Chudoba (1990) in order of decreasing biodegradability: alkanes > branched alkanes > cyclo-alkanes > aromatic hydrocarbons, could be expanded to include FAME: FAME > alkanes > branched alkanes > cyclo-alkanes > aromatic hydrocarbons. The biochemical pathways identified for the biodegradation of all the diesels was enzyme-enhanced β-oxidation. The present research also indicated that biodiesel addition to crude-derived diesels to increase the density to within the current required specifications for diesels cannot be a reality in SA because of the underdeveloped biodiesel industry. To increase the density by using biodiesel to within the specification for GTL diesel, more than 27% biodiesel would be required, which is currently is not achievable from an economic perspective as well as governmental national strategy perspective. The addition of biodiesel as lubricity enhancer seems more plausible, because less than 5% would be required for petrodiesels. The results on the ecotoxicity of the diesels and diesel blends demonstrated a general lack of acute toxic effect, especially for the fish and crustaceans used during the present study. Although algal and bacterial tests showed an effect at most of the WAF loading rates, none were high enough to enable the calculation of a median effect loading rate (EL50). QSAR‟s, like EPI Suite, together with prediction models, like the Fisk Ecotoxicity Estimation Model, can be used to screen for ecotoxicity and biodegradability of hydrocarbons found in Petrodiesels. It was less applicable for the prediction of biodiesel constituents. The use of different cut-off values for the constituents of biodiesel could be developed in future research. The use of this combination enabled the present research into the potential toxicity of hydrocarbon mixtures to be conducted, especially since tests on individual constituents are impractical. QSAR‟s may provide a relatively cost-effective way to screen for potential environmental acceptability of such mixtures. The contributors to the toxicity of mixtures of hydrocarbons found in diesels were evaluated and it appears that paraffins contribute more to the overall toxicity than previously thought and aromatics less. By putting well-defined policies and incentives in place, a robust biodiesel industry could be created that will enable SA to contribute to the mitigation of the threat of climate change, to become less dependent on foreign oil and to develop rural agriculture. The key to energy security is not one solution to South Africa‟s energy needs, but a multifaceted approach to the complex subject of sustainable energy security. The end of the hydrocarbon era of energy is not in sight, at least for the near future, but soon even hydrocarbon energy in the form of coal and crude oil will have to be re-evaluated as SA‟s major energy resource for economic and energy security. In SA the potential of developing natural gas resources through fracking, nuclear, solar, wind, biological and even wastes to energy processes as well as better energy efficiency, in a balanced and diverse energy portfolio, could pave the way toward energy security in the long run. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ru-olie aanvraag en produksie wêreldwyd is besig om toe te neem en die Internasionale Energie Agentskap projekteer dat wêreld ru-olie verbruik sal toeneem van 82 vate per dag in 2007 tot „n beraamde 104 vate per dag in 2030. Die omgewings uitdagings wat huidige en toekomstige toename in brandstof verbruik, spesifiek die impak op lug gehalte, water- en grond, mag hê, is dryfvere vir produseerders en reguleerders om brandstof spesifikasies te verander om minder omgewings impak te veroorsaak. Brandstof vir vervoer doeleindes word oor die algemeen van ru-olie gemaak, maar in Suid Afrika word ongeveer „n derde van die vloeibare brandtof gemaak deur middel van gekatiliseerde omskakeling van vergasde steenkool via die Fischer-Tropsch proses by Sasol. Diesel wat uit sintetiese ru-olie gemaak is, is sinteties en die raffineerder moet verskillende koolwaterstof strome meng om „n finale produk te lewer. Biodiesel wat uit hernubare hulpbronne soos plant-olies en diervet gemaak word, kan oorweeg word vir die vervaardiging van meer omgewings aanvaarbare brandstof met laer swael en aromatiese koolwaterstof inhoud en ook minder partikel inhoud in die uitlaatgas. Die huidige navorsing het beoog om te evalueer of die samestelling van diesels wat vervaardig is uit verskillende hulpbronne, wat steenkool, aardgas, ru-olie en sojaboon olie ingesluit het, die biodegradeerbaarheid en ekotoksisiteit kan beïnvloed. Akute akwatiese toetse wat varswater vis, krustaseë, alge en marine bakterieë ingesluit het, was aangewend om die akute toksisiteit van die diesels te bepaal. Kwantitatiewe struktuur aktiwiteit verwantskaps modelle is ook gebruik om die biodegradeerbaarheid en ekotoksisiteits eienskappe van die diesels te beraam om vas te stel of 'n bekostigbare alternatief beskikbaar is om daardie eienskappe te bepaal. Die resultate het aangedui dat die 2D GC tegniek kwantitatief en kwalitatief gebruik kan word om die koolwaterstowwe in die diesels te identifiseer. Die benutting van die 2D GC tegnieke is egter om die koolwaterstof afbraak produkte te identifiseer en ook om die massa balans gedurende die biodegradering te bevestig. Die verskil in teoretiese suurstof aanvraag van die verskillende diesels het die belangrikheid daarvan blemtoon en bevestig om die teoretiese suurstof aanvraag korrek te bereken en sodoende die biodegradasie korrek te bepaal. Verder kan die biodegradasie hierargie van Pitter en Chudoba (1990) volgens afnemende biodegradasie: alkane > vertakte alkane > siklo-alkane > aromatiese koolwaterstowwe, uitgebrei word om vetsuur-metielesters in te sluit: vetsuur-metielesters > alkane > vertakte alkane > siklo-alkane > aromatiese koolwaterstowwe. Die biochemiese roetes wat geïdentifiseer is vir die biodegradasie van die diesels, was ensiem-verbeterde β-oksidasie. Die huidige navorsing het ook aangedui dat biodiesel toevoeging tot ru-olie vervaardigde diesel om die digtheid te verhoog to binne huidige spesifikasies is nog nie lewensvatbaar in Suid Afrika nie as gevolg van die onderontwikkelde biodiesel industrie. Om die digtheid te verhoog met biodiesel tot binne spesifikasie verg meer as 27% biodiesel en is huidiglik nie haalbaar vanuit 'n ekonomiese persketief en ook nie vanuit 'n regerings nasionale strategie perspektief nie. Die toevoeging van biodiesel as lubrisiteits vervetering blyk meer van toepassing te wees aangesien minder as 5% biodiesel toevoeging benodig sou wees. Die resultate van die ekotoksisiteits toetse het 'n algemene gebrek aan akute toksisiteits effek aangedui, veral vir vis en skaaldiere wat in die huidige studie gebruik is. Howel alge en bakteriële toetse daarop gedui het dat 'n toksiese effek wel aanwesig was, was dit gering en kon die median effektiewe ladings koers (EL50) nie bepaal word nie. QSARs, soos Epi Suite, tesame met voospellings modelle, soos die Fisk Ecotoxicity Estimation Model, kan gebruik word om ekotoksisiteit en biodegradeerbaarheid van koolwaterstowwe in petrodiesels te beraam, alhoewel dit minder van toepassing was op biodiesel. Die gebruik van ander afsny waardes spesifiek vir biodiesel kan oorweeg word in toekomstige navorsing. Die molecules wat bygedra het tot die toksisiteit van die koolwaterstof mengsels was geëvalueeren daar is gevind dat die paraffiniese molekules meer begedra het tot die totale toksisiteit en die aromate minder. Deur goed gedefinieerde beleid en aansporings meganismes inplek te sit, kan 'n biodiesel industrie in SA geskep word wat SA sal help om by te dra tot die bekamping van klimaats vendering en sodoende minder afhanklik te wees van buitelandse olie en ook landbou in SA te bevorder. Die sluetel tot energie sekuriteit is nie een oplossing vir SA se energie aanvraag nie, maar eerder 'n veelsydige benadering tot die komplekse onderwerp van volhoubare energie sekuriteit. Die einde van koolwaterstof energie is nog nie in sig nie, ten miste nie in die nabye toekoms nie, maar binnekort sal selfs koolwaterstof energie in die vorm van steenkool en ru-olie heroorweeg moet word as SA se hoof energie hulpbronne vir ekonomiese en energie sekuriteit. In SA moet die potensiaal van natuurlike gas ontginning deur middel van hidrauliese breking, kernkrag, wind energie, biologiese energie en selfs afval tot energie prosesse bestudeer word, so-ook beter energie doeltreffendheid om sodoende 'n gebalansweerde energie portefuelje te skep wat die weg sal baan na energie sekuriteit op die lang termyn.