Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Mercury is a metal without physiological functions in human body and is toxic to human beings. This metal has many applications in industry and, therefore it is very important in occupational and environmental exposure. The toxicity of mercury depends on the form of the metal and can affect several organs, such as brain, kidney and liver. In addition, mercury can cause alteration in hematological and immunological systems. The oxidative stress seems to be involved in toxicity induced by mercury, since this metal may cause an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and disturbances in enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense systems. Thus, in addition to conventional therapies using chelating agents, therapies using antioxidants are tested in an attempt to reduce the toxic effects of this metal. Since diphenyl diselenide (PhSe)2 has several pharmacological properties, including antioxidant action, our goal was to verify the effect of this compound in different models of exposure to mercuric chloride (HgCl2) in mice. The use of another antioxidant agent, Nacetylcysteine (NAC), and a chelating agent of reference, 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanosulfonato (DMPS), were also evaluated. The results showed that the concomitant and acute exposure to HgCl2 and therapeutic agents tested presented toxic effects. In fact, the administration of DMPS and NAC, in animals exposed to HgCl2, caused renal toxicity in mice, which was evidenced by an increase in the urea and creatinine levels and by reduction on renal Na+, K+-ATPase activity. This can be explained by a possible formation of complexes between the metal and these agents. The administration of (PhSe)2 caused 100% of death in animals exposed to HgCl2. The toxic effects of HgCl2 + (PhSe)2 association affects the hepatic tissue and especially the renal tissue. Hepatic damage was characterized by an increase in the lipid peroxidation levels and reduction in catalase activity from animals of HgCl2 + (PhSe)2 group. Renal damage was characterized by biochemical markers in plasma and urine of mice. Moreover, mice exposed to the association between HgCl2 and (PhSe)2 showed inhibitions in renal glutathione S-transferase (GST) and Na+, K+-ATPase activities. The oxidative damage in renal tissue was evidenced by increase in the lipid peroxidation levels and increase in ascorbic acid concentration in mice exposed to HgCl2 + (PhSe)2 group. Increased levels of hemoglobin and hematocrit were also observed in mice of HgCl2 + (PhSe)2 group and renal damage seems to be involved in this effect. The formation of a complex between HgCl2 and (PhSe)2, which displays pro-oxidant activity, is the most probably hypothesis to explain this toxicity. We observed also that the preventive therapy with (PhSe)2 was effective in protecting against immunological and hematological alterations induced by subchronic HgCl2 exposure. In fact, exposure to HgCl2 caused anemia in mice, which was observed by reducing in the hemoglobin, erythrocytes and hematocrit levels. Moreover, levels of leukocytes and platelets were also reduced by exposure to HgCl2. The immunological changes were evidenced by increase in immunoglobulins levels. All these changes, hematological and immunological, were reduced by (PhSe)2 pre-treatment. The antioxidant activity of this selenium compound seems to be involved in this mechanism of protection, as well as the formation of a inactive ternary complex between mercury, selenium and selenoprotein P. (PhSe)2 also presented similar effects when compared to DMPS in restored renal and hematological damage observed after subchronic exposure to HgCl2. The hematological changes (decrease in erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets levels) and changes in renal tissue, observed by increase in the plasmatic urea, creatinine, and uric acid levels and renal lipid peroxidation, induced by exposure to HgCl2, were reversed by (PhSe)2 and DMPS, individually administered. However, the combined use of (PhSe)2 and DMPS did not present good results, since the individual therapies with these two agents were more effective than the combined administration. Based on these results, we can conclude that the use of (PhSe)2 against the HgCl2 toxicity should be further studied, since, depending on the experimental model, the results can be beneficial or there may be a potentiation of the toxic effects of mercury. / O mercúrio (Hg) é um elemento ainda sem função fisiológica no organismo humano, sendo tóxico aos seres vivos. Este metal possui ampla aplicação na indústria sendo, portanto, bastante importante na exposição ocupacional e ambiental. A toxicidade do mercúrio depende da forma deste metal e pode afetar inúmeros órgãos, tais como o cérebro, os rins e o fígado e, ainda, causar alterações hematológicas e imunológicas. O estresse oxidativo parece estar envolvido na toxicidade induzida pelo mercúrio, uma vez que este metal pode causar um aumento na produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) e distúrbios nos sistemas de defesa antioxidante enzimáticos e não-enzimáticos. Desta forma, além das terapias convencionais por meio de agentes quelantes, terapias utilizando agentes antioxidantes são testadas na tentativa de reduzir os efeitos tóxicos deste metal. Considerando que o composto disseleneto de difenila (PhSe)2 possui inúmeras propriedades farmacológicas, dentre as quais destaca-se a sua ação antioxidante, o nosso objetivo foi verificar o efeito deste composto em diferentes modelos de exposição ao cloreto de mercúrio (HgCl2) em camundongos. As utilizações de outro agente antioxidante, a N-acetilcisteína (NAC), e de um agente quelante de referência, o ácido 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanosulfônico (DMPS), também foram avaliadas. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que quando o HgCl2 foi administrado de forma aguda e a utilização dos agentes terapêuticos testados ocorreu de forma concomitante, efeitos tóxicos decorrentes destas interações foram observados. De fato, a administração de NAC e DMPS, em animais expostos ao HgCl2, causou toxicidade renal nos camundongos, o que foi evidenciado através de um aumento nos níveis de uréia e creatinina e através da redução na atividade da enzima Na+, K+-ATPase renal. Esta toxicidade foi devida a uma possível formação de complexos tóxicos entre o metal e estes agentes. A administração de (PhSe)2 causou 100% de morte nos animais expostos ao HgCl2. Os efeitos tóxicos decorrentes desta associação afetam o tecido hepático e, principalmente, o tecido renal. O dano hepático foi caracterizado pelo aumento nos níveis de peroxidação lipídica e redução na atividade da enzima catalase nos animais do grupo HgCl2 + (PhSe)2. O dano renal foi caracterizado através de marcadores bioquímicos no plasma e na urina dos camundongos. Além disso, os camundongos expostos a associação entre o HgCl2 e o (PhSe)2 apresentaram inibições na atividade das enzimas glutationa S-transferase (GST) e Na+, K+-ATPase renal. O dano oxidativo no tecido renal foi evidenciado através do aumento nos níveis de peroxidação lipídica e aumento na concentração de ácido ascórbico nos camundongos expostos ao HgCl2 e ao (PhSe)2, de forma concomitante. Elevados valores de hemoglobina e hematócrito também foram observados nos camundongos do grupo HgCl2 + (PhSe)2 e o dano renal parece estar envolvido neste efeito. A formação de um complexo entre o HgCl2 e o (PhSe)2, o qual apresenta atividades pró-oxidantes, é a hipótese mais provável para explicar esta toxicidade. Foi observado também que a terapia preventiva com o (PhSe)2 foi efetiva em proteger contra os danos nos sistemas hematológico e imunológico induzidos de forma subcrônica pelo HgCl2. De fato, a exposição ao HgCl2 causou anemia nos camundongos, o que foi observado através da redução nos níveis de hemoglobina, contagem de eritrócitos e no hematócrito. Além disso, os níveis de leucócitos e plaquetas também foram reduzidos pela exposição ao metal. As alterações imunológicas foram evidenciadas pelo aumento nos níveis de imunoglobulinas. Todas estas alterações, hematológicas e imunológicas, foram reduzidas pelo pré-tratamento com o (PhSe)2. A ação antioxidante deste composto de selênio parece estar envolvida neste mecanismo de proteção, bem como a formação de um complexo ternário inerte entre o mercúrio, o selênio e a selenoproteína P. O (PhSe)2 também foi tão efetivo quanto o DMPS em reverter os danos renal e hematológico observados após a exposição subcrônica ao HgCl2. As alterações hematológicas (diminuição nos níveis de eritrócitos, leucócitos e plaquetas) e as alterações no tecido renal, observadas através do aumento nos níveis de uréia, creatinina e ácido úrico plasmáticos e através da peroxidação lipídica renal, induzidos pela exposição ao HgCl2, foram revertidas pelas administrações individuais de (PhSe)2 e DMPS. Entretanto, a utilização do (PhSe)2 de forma associada ao DMPS não apresentou bons resultados, uma vez que as administrações individuais destes dois agentes foram mais eficazes do que a administração combinada. Com base nos resultados obtidos, nós podemos concluir que a utilização do (PhSe)2 em intoxicações pelo HgCl2 deve ser ainda mais estudada, já que, dependendo do modelo experimental utilizado, os resultados podem ser benéficos ou pode haver uma potencialização dos efeitos tóxicos do mercúrio.

Several metals are known to disturb cellular functions by binding to thiol groups of biomolecules. Therefore, a possible therapy for metal intoxication is to remove the toxic metals from the bound functional bioligands by administering strong thiol-containing chelators. However, these compounds could remove endogenous metals, which are essential components of many enzyme systems. Thus, the present study was designed to evaluate the effects of chelating agents, meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA), 2,3-dimercaptopropane 1-sulfonate (DMPS) and 2,3-dimercaptopropanol (BAL) per se on toxicological parameters and models of cadmium intoxication. δ-Aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) activity from human erythrocytes was inhibited by dithiol chelating agents in a concentration-dependent manner. Dithiotreitol and zinc chloride were able to protect the δ-ALA-D inhibition caused by BAL, DMPS and DMSA in a concentration-dependent manner. Acute treatment with chelating agents caused changes in a number of toxicological parameters in mice. BAL caused a decrease on renal δ-ALA-D activity and an increase on brain and liver enzyme activity. DMPS caused an inhibition in renal δ-ALA-D activity, while animals that received a single dose of DMSA did not present δ-ALA-D activity of tissues modified. All three agents produced an increase in both liver and renal lipid peroxidation. Mice that received DMPS presented an increase in renal zinc concentration and a depletion of hepatic zinc occurred in mice administrated with BAL. Of all the toxic metals found in the environment and used in industry, cadmium occupies a special place because of the generally intractable nature of cadmium intoxication. Several lines of evidence indicate that reactive oxygen species are involved in cadmium-mediated tissue damage. Thus, it is believed that antioxidant should be one of the important components of an effective treatment of cadmium poisoning, as well, combined therapy with antioxidants and chelators can yield better therapeutic outcomes than isolated chelation therapy. Acute cadmium-intoxication caused inhibition of δ-ALA-D and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, reduction in ascorbic acid levels and increase of lipid peroxidation in mice testes. Also, an increase on plasmatic lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities was observed. DMSA, DMPS and diphenyl diselenide ((PhSe)2) protected against the inhibitory effect of cadmium on δ-ALA-D activity and restored the increase of TBARS levels. However, these compounds alone or in combination, were unable to protect SOD activity and to improve ascorbic acid levels near to the normal value. The use of combined therapy (DMSA plus (PhSe)2) not proved be better than the monotherapy, in improving the toxicological parameters evaluated in this model of testicular damage induced by cadmium. On the other hand, the use of combined therapy (DMPS plus (PhSe)2) proved to be better than the monotherapy in decreasing cadmium levels in testes and in ameliorating plasmatic AST level. Sub-chronic effects of cadmium-intoxication in mice caused inhibition of δ-ALA-D activity in liver, kidney and spleen and (PhSe)2 therapy was effective in restoring enzyme activity in all tissues. Also, a reduction in ascorbic acid content by cadmium was observed in kidney and spleen, whereas (PhSe)2 was only effective in improving this reduction in kidney. The therapy with this compound was effective in restoring an increase of TBARS levels caused by cadmium in liver and brain tissues. In general, the results of this study indicate that it is necessary to investigate the potential toxicity of the chelating agents, since chelators may be as harmful as the metals they chelate. In addition, (PhSe)2 therapy in cadmium poisoning may be considered, as alone (antioxidant) as combined with DMPS and DMSA / Diversos metais alteram as funções celulares por serem capazes de se ligar a grupos tióis de biomoléculas. Portanto, uma terapia eficaz na intoxicação por metal seria a remoção dos metais tóxicos dos bioligantes funcionais através da administração de quelantes contendo grupos tióis. Entretanto, estes compostos poderiam remover metais endógenos, os quais são componentes essenciais de muitos sistemas enzimáticos. Dessa forma, o presente estudo foi delineado para avaliar os efeitos dos agentes quelantes, ácido meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccínico (DMSA), ácido 2,3-dimercaptopropano 1-sulfônico (DMPS) and 2,3-dimercaptopropanol (BAL) per se sobre alguns parâmetros toxicológicos e em modelos de intoxicação por cádmio. A atividade da δ-aminolevulinato desidratase (δ- ALA-D) de sangue humano foi inibida pelos agentes quelantes ditiólicos de maneira dependente da concentração. O ditiotreitol e o cloreto de zinco foram efetivos em proteger da inibição da δ-ALA-D causada pelo BAL, DMPS e DMSA de maneira dependente da concentração. O tratamento agudo com os agentes quelantes causou alterações em vários parâmetros toxicológicos em camundongos. O BAL causou uma diminuição significante na atividade da δ-ALA-D renal e um aumento na atividade da enzima cerebral e hepática. O DMPS causou uma inibição na atividade da δ-ALA-D de rim, enquanto os animais que receberam uma única dose de DMSA não apresentaram modificação na atividade da enzima nos tecidos. Todos os quelantes produziram um aumento na peroxidação lipídica no fígado e no rim. Os camundongos que receberam o DMPS apresentaram um aumento na concentração de zinco renal e uma depleção do zinco hepático ocorreu nos camundongos administrados com BAL. De todos os metais tóxicos encontrados no ambiente e utilizados industrialmente, o cádmio ocupa um lugar especial devido à natureza geralmente intratável da intoxicação por este metal. Muitas evidências indicam que as espécies reativas de oxigênio estão envolvidas no dano tecidual induzido pelo cádmio. Então, acredita-se que um antioxidante seja um componente importante de um tratamento efetivo da intoxicação por cádmio, bem como a terapia combinada com antioxidantes e quelantes poderia ser melhor do que a terapia que utiliza apenas os quelantes. A intoxicação aguda por cádmio causou inibição das atividades da δ-ALA-D e da superóxido dismutase (SOD), redução na concentração de ácido ascórbico e aumento da peroxidação lipídica nos testículos dos camundongos. Observou-se também uma elevação da LDH, AST e ALT plasmática. O DMSA, o DMPS e o disseleneto de difenila ((PhSe)2) protegeram do efeito inibitório induzido pelo cádmio na δ-ALA-D e restauraram o aumento dos níveis de espécies reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS). Entretanto, estes compostos sozinhos ou em combinação foram incapazes de proteger a atividade da SOD e em recuperar os níveis de ácido ascórbico. A terapia combinada (DMSA e (PhSe)2) não foi melhor que a monoterapia em restaurar os parâmetros toxicológicos avaliados neste modelo de dano testicular induzido por cádmio. Por outro lado, o uso da terapia combinada (DMPS e (PhSe)2) foi melhor que a monoterapia em reduzir os níveis de cádmio nos testículos e em restaurar o nível da AST plasmática. A intoxicação sub-crônica por cádmio em camundongos causou inibição da atividade da δ-ALA-D do fígado, rim e baço e a terapia com (PhSe)2 foi efetiva em restaurar a atividade da enzima em todos os tecidos. Uma redução no conteúdo de ácido ascórbico no rim e no baço foi também observado, enquanto o (PhSe)2 foi efetivo em restaurar esta redução somente no rim. Além disso, a terapia com este composto foi efetiva em restaurar o aumento dos níveis de TBARS causado pelo cádmio nos tecidos hepático e cerebral. De maneira geral, os resultados deste estudo indicam que é necessário investigar a toxicidade potencial dos agentes quelantes, uma vez que eles podem ser tão prejudiciais quanto os metais que eles quelam. Além disso, a terapia com (PhSe)2 na intoxicação por cádmio pode ser útil, tanto quando utilizada sozinha (antioxidante) quanto combinado com DMPS ou DMSA

Because of the importance of Research Data Management (RDM) in the life sciences, where vast amounts of research data in different complex formats are being produced, this study aimed to assess the state of RDM readiness in the life sciences at Wits to ascertain what support is needed with regards to RDM. In order to achieve the aim, the current RDM practices and needs of researchers, as well as the challenges they face, were investigated. The Jisc Research Data Lifecycle (Jisc, 2021a) was used to guide the literature review, frame data collection, analyse data and advise on some of the main findings and recommendations. A mixed methods approach and an explanatory sequential design were used to achieve the research objectives. For the quantitative phase of research, an online questionnaire was used to collect data. As the total target population (282) was not big, a census was conducted. The questionnaire was administered using SurveyMonkey software. During the qualitative part of the research, semi-structured interviews were used to explain the quantitative results. Five participants were purposively sampled to take part in interviews. The statistical package, MS Excel, was used to analyse quantitative data whilst qualitative data were analysed by thematic analysis. The study showed that life sciences researchers at Wits have adopted many RDM practices, and researchers are increasingly becoming aware of the importance of the openness of data. However, they are dealing with similar RDM issues as their peers worldwide. Results highlighted challenges of, amongst others, the lack of an RDM policy as well as the lack of, or unawareness of, appropriate RDM training and support at Wits. As formal implementation of RDM still needs to take place at Wits, it is recommended that Wits puts an RDM policy in place, followed by suitable RDM infrastructure and awareness making of current services.

In this thesis, I report the gas phase infrared spectra of some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) namely 1, 5-, 1, 6-, and 2, 6-dimethyl naphthalenes (DMNs); 2, 4-, 2, 6-, 2, 7-, and 2,8-dimethyl quinolines (DMQs); and 1, 9-, 2, 4-, and 3, 9-dimethyl phenanthrenes (DMPs) and diols such as 1, 2-ethylene glycol (1,2-EG) and 1, 4-butanediol (1,4-BD). Assignment of the IR spectra has been done with the help of DFT calculations followed by scaled quantum mechanical force field calculations. Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction to PAHs and diols. A brief survey of literature pertinent to their sources, their importance, experimental techniques for identification of PAHs and different conformers of diols and intramolecular interactions between the two hydroxyl groups in the diols are presented. The scope and motivation of the present investigation have been described at the end of the chapter. In Chapter 2, I have discussed all the methods used in carrying out this work. The details of the experimental FT IR set-up and quantum-chemical calculations employed in this work have been elaborated in this chapter. The subsequent chapters 3 - 5 deal with the experimental and theoretical results obtained for DMNs, DMQs, and DMPs. In chapter 3, infrared spectra of 1,5-, 1,6-, and 2,6-DMN have been described. The spectra have been recorded using a multi-pass gas cell coupled with Nexus-870 spectrometer (Thermonicolet, US). Qualitatively, spectral assignments have been made with the help of calculated doubly scaled (one scaling factor for the C-H stretching and another factor for the non C-H stretching frequencies) harmonic frequencies at the B3LYP/6-31G* level of theory. The spectral features to distinguish three different isomers of DMN have been identified. In chapter 4, IR spectra of 2,4-, 2,6-, 2,7-, and 2,8-DMQ in the gas phase have been recorded using a high resolution Vertex-70 (Bruker Optics, Germany) FT-IR spectrometer. DFT calculations have been carried out in order to get harmonic and anharmonic frequencies and their intensities at the B3LYP/6-31G* level of theory. Unambiguous assignments of IR bands could not be made with the help of anharmonic or selectively scaled harmonic frequencies. Therefore, scaled quantum mechanical (SQM) force field calculations were performed where force fields in local coordinates were scaled for getting frequencies in close agreement with experiment. Potential energy distributions (PEDs) of the normal modes in terms of the local coordinates of the molecule using a modified UMAT program in the QCPE package were also obtained in order to identify the nature of the fundamental vibration modes. In chapter 5, I have presented the gas phase IR spectra of 1,9-, 2,4-, and 3,9-DMP. The harmonic and anharmonic frequencies and their intensities were obtained at the B3LYP/6-31G* and B3LYP/6-311G** levels of theory. I have carried out SQM calculations for the assignment of the experimental frequencies in a similar fashion as was done for the DMQs. In chapter 6, IR spectra of two diols namely 1,2-ethylene glycol and 1,4-butane diol are reported and discussed. DFT calculations have been carried out for the harmonic fundamental frequencies and intensities at the experimental temperatures with 10 unique chosen conformers of the diols at the B3LYP/6-311++G** level of theory. Gas phase equilibrium population analysis has been done in order to generate the theoretical spectrum with the weighted average contributions from the 10 conformers to match the experimental spectrum. The hydrogen bond enthalpy, strength and nature have been investigated in details. From this experimental and theoretical studies, it has been concluded that the intramolecular hydrogen bond is absent in 1,2-EG at ordinary temperatures whereas it is present in 1,4-BD. vi Chapter 7 is the concluding chapter where the main work done in this thesis is summarized and future direction is presented.

The lumen-to-cell transport, cellular accumulation, and toxicity of ionic cadmium (109Cd2+) and cadmium-cysteine conjugate (Cys-S-109Cd-S-Cys) were studied in isolated perfused S2 segments of the proximal tubule of the rabbit kidney. All perfusion solutions were HEPES buffered and contained 3H-L-glucose which functioned as a volume and leak marker along with 250 nM FD & C Green dye as a vital dye. When ionic cadmium, 0.73µM Cd2+, or 0.73µM cadmium-cysteine conjugate (Cys-S-109Cd-S-Cys) containing solution was perfused through the lumen of the tubule there was no visual evidence of toxicity such as blebbing of the luminal membrane, cellular vital dye uptake, and cellular swelling. Ionic Cd2+ transport was temperature dependent (87% reduction at 22°C and 100% at 11°C) and inhibited by FeCl2 (42% reduction at 10µM) and ZnCl2 (48% reduction at 20µM), and high Ca2+ concentrations (27% reduction at 1.95mM and 69% at 2.6mM). The ionic Cd2+ transport was not affected by verapamil and diltiazem. The cadmium conjugate (Cys-S-Cd-S-Cys) transport was also temperature dependent (76% reduction at 22°C and 100% at 11°C) and inhibited by the amino acids L-cystine and L-arginine (55% and 50% respectively), stimulated by L-methionine (56%), but not affected by L-aspartate, L-glutamate and Gly-Sar. 2, 3-Dimercaptopropane-1-Sulfonate (DMPS) co-perfused with Cd2+ decreased absorption of 20µM Cd2+ (39% reduction at 30 µM and 94.6% reduction at 200 µM), while DMPS added to the bathing solution has no effect on the luminal transport of Cd2+. DMPS co-perfused with 20 µM Cys-S-Cd-S-Cys substantially reduced Cd2+ transport (62% reduction at 30 µM). We conclude that cadmium can be transported at the luminal membrane of the S2 segment of the proximal tubule by multiple mechanisms, depending on the form which it is presented to membrane. Ionic cadmium appears to be transported by iron (DCT1), zinc (ZTL1) transporters and some kind of calcium-selective channel while cadmium conjugate of L-cysteine appears to be transported by L-cystine transporters (system b0+). Dipeptide transporter is not involved in the transport of cadmium. DMPS appears to be a chelator for cadmium.

In addition to the well known quantum confinement effects resulted from size and shape, interfacial bond structure is another factor, affecting the properties of the nanomaterial that is rarely studied. Inspired by the “Au-S-Au” staple motif discovered from the crystal structure of monothiol protected Au102 nanocluster (Science, 2007, 318, 430), dithiol molecules (e. g. 1, 2-dithiol, 1, 4-dithiol, etc.) with molecular structural constraint have been employed to create dithiolate protected clusters or mixed monothiolate and dithiolate protected clusters. The structure and properties of the Au clusters are expected to change due to two effects: The entropy gain of dithiol over monothiol protection and the constraint to the formation of the thiol bridging motif. DMPS (1, 2-dithiol molecule) stabilized clusters with characteristic absorption bands have been obtained, and characterized by multiple techniques. Monolayer reaction on gold core surface between the monothiol tiopronin and dithiol DMPS has been performed, and the mechanism has been probed. Mixed phenylethanethiolate and durene-dithiolate (1, 4-dithiol molecule) protected Au130 clusters with rich electrochemical features have been created, and the optical and electrochemical energetics have been successfully correlated based on core and core-ligand energy states. Furthermore, the impact of 1, 4-dithiolate-Au bonding on the near infrared luminescence has been studied.