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O glioblastoma (GBM) é um tumor extremamente agressivo e resistente aos tratamentos convencionais. Os agentes utilizados na quimio- e radioterapia são indutores de danos no DNA, por induzirem quebras de fita simples (SSBs) e quebras de fita dupla (DSBs), as quais são letais para as células, mas quando eficientemente reparadas pelas células tumorais tornam estas resistentes. As principais vias de reparo de DSBs são: a via por recombinação homológa (Homologous Recombination HR) e por recombinação não- homóloga (Non-homologous end joining NHEJ). As proteínas de reparo participantes dessas vias têm sido estudadas como potenciais alvos moleculares na terapia contra o câncer. A estratégia empregada no presente trabalho foi a de inibir a via de reparo HR em células já comprometidas para a via NHEJ. Para isso foi utilizado o inibidor de RAD51 (uma das principais proteínas da via HR), 3-chloro-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-4- morpholinylo-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione, conhecido como RI-1(Calbiochem), testado em células de glioma M059J e M059K (deficientes e proficientes para DNA-PK, respectivamente), irradiadas com raios-X. Diferentes ensaios foram realizados para o teste com o inibidor RI-1 em células irradiadas ou não e comparados ao controle sem tratamento. Os resultados dos ensaios de sobrevivência clonogênica mostraram que a concentração de 40 M do inibidor RI-1 exerceu um maior efeito inibitório sobre a capacidade de as células se dividirem e formarem colônias. O RI-1 induziu alterações significativas na cinética do ciclo celular predominantemente na linhagem selvagem M059K, nos tempos de 24 e 72 h. Apesar de a linhagem M059J não mostrar alterações significativas na cinética do ciclo celular, esta demonstrou sensibilidade à irradiação, conforme demonstrado pela cinética de reparo das DSBs, sendo mais lenta em relação à M059K, demonstrando o comprometimento do reparo NHEJ na linhagem mutante para DNA-PK. A expressão das proteínas LIG3, XRCC1 e PARP-1 foram analisadas no tempo de 15 minutos e 24 h após a irradiação. Na presença do inibidor RI-1, a expressão da LIG3 foi aumentada em células M059K (15 min e 24 h) comparadas ao grupo controle. Já a linhagem M059J apresentou uma elevada expressão das proteínas XRCC1 e PARP-1 apenas em 15 min em relação ao controle; esses dados indicaram que um possível reparo de DSBs envolvendo essas proteínas pode ter sido ativado logo nos primeiros minutos após a indução de danos nessas células. O conjunto dos resultados deste trabalho sugere um papel atuante do inibidor RI-1 em células comprometidas para o reparo NHEJ, isto é, a linhagem M059J, levando à sugestão de que vias alternativas de reparo podem possivelmente estar envolvidas na resistência das células tumorais aos tratamentos convencionais. / Glioblastoma (GBM) is an extremely aggressive and resistant tumor to conventional treatments. The agents used in chemotherapy and radiotherapy are inducers of DNA damage, since they induce single strand breaks (SSBs) and doublestrand breaks (DSBs), which are lethal to cells, but when efficiently repaired by tumor cells make them resistant to antitumoral agents. The main repair pathways for DSBs are the homologous recombination (HR) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathways. Proteins participating in these processes have been studied as potential molecular targets in cancer therapy. Thus, the strategy employed in this work involved the inhibition of HR repair pathway in cells already committed to the NHEJ pathway, aiming to sensitize irradiated GBM cells. An inhibitor of RAD51 (one of the major HR proteins) was used: 3-chloro-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) -4 morpholinylo-1Hpyrrole- 2,5-dione, known as RI-1 (Calbiochem); this compound was tested in GBM cells, M059K and M059J (proficient and deficient for the DNA-PK, respectively) irradiated with X-rays. Various assays were performed to test the inhibitory property of RI-1 in irradiated cells and the combination of the inhibitor with X-irradiation, compared with the untreated control. The results of clonogenic survival showed that 40 M of RI-1 inhibitor exerted a higher inhibitory effect on the ability of cells to divide and form colonies. The RI-1 induced changes in cell cycle kinetics predominantly in the wild-type M059K, at 24 and 72 h. Although M059J did not show significant changes in cell cycle kinetics, these cells showed sensitivity to X-irradiation, as shown by the kinetics of DSB repair (gamma-H2AX foci), which was slower compared to M059K, demonstrating the commitment of the NHEJ repair in M059J (mutant for DNA-PK). The expression of LIG3, PARP-1 and XRCC1 proteins were analyzed at 15 min. and 24 h after irradiation. In the presence of the inhibitor RI-1, LIG 3 expression was increased in M059K cells (15 min. and 24 h) compared to the control group. M059J cells showed a high expression of XRCC1 and PARP-1 only at 15 min., compared to the control. These data indicated that a possible repair of DSBs involving these proteins may have been activated in the first minutes after DNA damage induction. The overall results of this study suggest that RI-1 inhibitor was efficient to influence cellular responses in cells committed to the NHEJ repair, i.e. M059J cell line, leading to the hypothesis that alternative repair pathways may be possibly involved in the resistance of tumor cells.

O glioblastoma (GBM) é um tumor extremamente agressivo e resistente aos tratamentos convencionais. Os agentes utilizados na quimio- e radioterapia são indutores de danos no DNA, por induzirem quebras de fita simples (SSBs) e quebras de fita dupla (DSBs), as quais são letais para as células, mas quando eficientemente reparadas pelas células tumorais tornam estas resistentes. As principais vias de reparo de DSBs são: a via por recombinação homológa (Homologous Recombination HR) e por recombinação não- homóloga (Non-homologous end joining NHEJ). As proteínas de reparo participantes dessas vias têm sido estudadas como potenciais alvos moleculares na terapia contra o câncer. A estratégia empregada no presente trabalho foi a de inibir a via de reparo HR em células já comprometidas para a via NHEJ. Para isso foi utilizado o inibidor de RAD51 (uma das principais proteínas da via HR), 3-chloro-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-4- morpholinylo-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione, conhecido como RI-1(Calbiochem), testado em células de glioma M059J e M059K (deficientes e proficientes para DNA-PK, respectivamente), irradiadas com raios-X. Diferentes ensaios foram realizados para o teste com o inibidor RI-1 em células irradiadas ou não e comparados ao controle sem tratamento. Os resultados dos ensaios de sobrevivência clonogênica mostraram que a concentração de 40 M do inibidor RI-1 exerceu um maior efeito inibitório sobre a capacidade de as células se dividirem e formarem colônias. O RI-1 induziu alterações significativas na cinética do ciclo celular predominantemente na linhagem selvagem M059K, nos tempos de 24 e 72 h. Apesar de a linhagem M059J não mostrar alterações significativas na cinética do ciclo celular, esta demonstrou sensibilidade à irradiação, conforme demonstrado pela cinética de reparo das DSBs, sendo mais lenta em relação à M059K, demonstrando o comprometimento do reparo NHEJ na linhagem mutante para DNA-PK. A expressão das proteínas LIG3, XRCC1 e PARP-1 foram analisadas no tempo de 15 minutos e 24 h após a irradiação. Na presença do inibidor RI-1, a expressão da LIG3 foi aumentada em células M059K (15 min e 24 h) comparadas ao grupo controle. Já a linhagem M059J apresentou uma elevada expressão das proteínas XRCC1 e PARP-1 apenas em 15 min em relação ao controle; esses dados indicaram que um possível reparo de DSBs envolvendo essas proteínas pode ter sido ativado logo nos primeiros minutos após a indução de danos nessas células. O conjunto dos resultados deste trabalho sugere um papel atuante do inibidor RI-1 em células comprometidas para o reparo NHEJ, isto é, a linhagem M059J, levando à sugestão de que vias alternativas de reparo podem possivelmente estar envolvidas na resistência das células tumorais aos tratamentos convencionais. / Glioblastoma (GBM) is an extremely aggressive and resistant tumor to conventional treatments. The agents used in chemotherapy and radiotherapy are inducers of DNA damage, since they induce single strand breaks (SSBs) and doublestrand breaks (DSBs), which are lethal to cells, but when efficiently repaired by tumor cells make them resistant to antitumoral agents. The main repair pathways for DSBs are the homologous recombination (HR) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathways. Proteins participating in these processes have been studied as potential molecular targets in cancer therapy. Thus, the strategy employed in this work involved the inhibition of HR repair pathway in cells already committed to the NHEJ pathway, aiming to sensitize irradiated GBM cells. An inhibitor of RAD51 (one of the major HR proteins) was used: 3-chloro-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) -4 morpholinylo-1Hpyrrole- 2,5-dione, known as RI-1 (Calbiochem); this compound was tested in GBM cells, M059K and M059J (proficient and deficient for the DNA-PK, respectively) irradiated with X-rays. Various assays were performed to test the inhibitory property of RI-1 in irradiated cells and the combination of the inhibitor with X-irradiation, compared with the untreated control. The results of clonogenic survival showed that 40 M of RI-1 inhibitor exerted a higher inhibitory effect on the ability of cells to divide and form colonies. The RI-1 induced changes in cell cycle kinetics predominantly in the wild-type M059K, at 24 and 72 h. Although M059J did not show significant changes in cell cycle kinetics, these cells showed sensitivity to X-irradiation, as shown by the kinetics of DSB repair (gamma-H2AX foci), which was slower compared to M059K, demonstrating the commitment of the NHEJ repair in M059J (mutant for DNA-PK). The expression of LIG3, PARP-1 and XRCC1 proteins were analyzed at 15 min. and 24 h after irradiation. In the presence of the inhibitor RI-1, LIG 3 expression was increased in M059K cells (15 min. and 24 h) compared to the control group. M059J cells showed a high expression of XRCC1 and PARP-1 only at 15 min., compared to the control. These data indicated that a possible repair of DSBs involving these proteins may have been activated in the first minutes after DNA damage induction. The overall results of this study suggest that RI-1 inhibitor was efficient to influence cellular responses in cells committed to the NHEJ repair, i.e. M059J cell line, leading to the hypothesis that alternative repair pathways may be possibly involved in the resistance of tumor cells.

Maintenance of genomic integrity with high fidelity is of prime importance to any organism. An insult which may result in compromised genome integrity is prevented or its consequences are monitored by advanced cellular networks, collectively called the DNA damage response (DDR). Various DNA repair pathways, which are part of DDR, constantly correct the genome in the event of any undesirable change in the genetic material and prevent the transmission of any impairment to daughter cells. Non homologous DNA end joining (NHEJ) is the predominant DNA repair pathway associated with DDR in higher eukaryotes, correcting double-strand breaks (DSBs). Microhomology mediated end joining (MMEJ), an alternate mechanism to NHEJ also exists in cells, which is associated with erroneous joining of broken DNA, leading to mutagenesis. DDR is of paramount importance in cellular viability and therefore, any defects in DDR or the imbalance of repair pathways contribute to mutations, cellular transformations and various neurodegenerative and congenital abnormalities. Here, we investigate the DDR via NHEJ and MMEJ pathways during embryonic development in mice as well as in presence of an environmental pollutant, Endosulfan, in order to understand how physiological and exogenous factors condition the balance of repair pathways. Among various classes of pesticides known to cause side effects, organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) lead the list, possessing high transport potential, and a variety of toxic and untoward health effects. Endosulfan is a widely used organochlorine pesticide and is speculated to be detrimental to human health. However, very little is known about mechanism of its genotoxicity. Using in vivo and ex vivo model systems, we showed that exposure to Endosulfan induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a concentration dependent manner. Using an array of assays and equivalents of sub-lethal concentrations comparable to the detected level of Endosulfan in humans living in active areas of exposure, we demonstrated that ROS production by Endosulfan resulted in DNA double-strand breaks in mice, rats and human cells. In mice, the DNA damage was predominantly detected in type II pneumocytes of lung tissue; spermatogonial mother cells and primary spermatids of testes. Importantly, Endosulfan-induced DNA damage evoked DDR, which further resulted in elevated levels of classical NHEJ. However, sequence analyses of NHEJ junctions revealed that Endosulfan treatment resulted in extensive processing of broken DNA, culminating in increased and long junctional deletions, thereby favouring erroneous repair. We also find that exposure to Endosulfan led to significantly increased levels of MMEJ, which is a LIGASE III dependent, alternative, non classical repair pathway, encompassing long deletions and processing of DNA. Further, we show that the differential expression of proteins following exposure to Endosulfan correlated with activation of alternative DNA repair. At the physiological level, using mouse model system, we showed that exposure to Endosulfan affected physiology and cellular architecture of organs and tissues. Among all organs, damage to testes was extensive and it resulted in death of different testicular cell populations. We also found that the damage in testes resulted in qualitative and quantitative defects during spermatogenesis in a time dependent manner, increasing epididymal ROS levels and affecting sperm chromatin integrity. This further culminated in reduced number of epididymal sperms and actively motile sperms, which finally resulted in reduced fertility in male but not in female mice. Repair of DSBs is important for maintaining genomic integrity during the successful development of a fertilized egg into a whole organism. To date, the mechanism of DSB repair in post implantation embryos has been largely unknown except for the differential requirement of DNA repair genes in the course of development. These studies relied on null mutation analysis of animal phenotypes and therefore a quantitative understanding of repair pathways was absent. In the present study, using a cell free repair system derived from different embryonic stages of mice, we found that canonical NHEJ is predominant at 14.5 day of embryonic development. Interestingly, all types of DSBs tested were repaired by LIGASE IV/XRCC4 and Ku-dependent classical NHEJ. Characterization of end-joined junctions and expression studies further showed evidence for C-NHEJ. Strikingly, we observed non canonical end joining accompanied by DSB resection, dependent on microhomology and LIGASE III in 18.5-day embryos. Further we observed an elevated expression of CtIP, MRE11, and NBS1 at this stage, suggesting that it could act as a switch between classical and microhomology-mediated end joining at later stages of embryonic development. Keeping these observations in mind, we wondered if Endosulfan affected the differential regulation of DDR during development, similar to mice tissues. Upon analysing the effect of endosulfan on NHEJ/MMEJ at above mentioned stages of mouse embryonic development, we found that C-NHEJ efficiency remained low or unaltered while the efficiency of MMEJ was upregulated significantly, perturbing the repair balance during embryo development and hence facilitating mutagenic repair. Thus, our results establish the existence of both classical and non classical NHEJ pathways during the post implantation stages of mammalian embryonic development. Our studies also provide deeper insights into physiological and molecular events leading to male infertility upon Endosulfan exposure and its impact on impairing the differential regulation of DNA repair during embryonic development. Our findings suggest the plasticity of DNA repair pathways in physiological and pathological conditions and provide insights into mechanism of genome instability due to DNA repair imbalance, when exposed to environmental mutagens.