I. Introduction. II. Production of Sanitary Milk. III. Milk as a Disease Distributor. IV. Pasteurization of Milk. V. Methods of Bacterial Count. VI. Intensive Study of Desirable and Undesirable Bacteriain Milk. VII. Conclusion. VIII. References / M.S.

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Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Profit margins of typical farming systems in the Swartland have come under pressure because of international market forces decreasing milk and wheat prices as well as the deregulation of the agricultural marketing boards in South Africa after 1994. The profit margins of small grain production systems are specifically under pressure. It has therefore become necessary to evaluate different combinations of farming enterprises continuously. The profitability of changing farming enterprises can be examined by means of budgeting techniques. In this study the profitability of the inclusion of more home grown feed stuffs in the fodder flow program of dairies, currently run according to a zero feed lot grazing system, was investigated. The technique of Linear Programming (LP) was used in this regard. Grain production per hectare can vary to a large extent in the Swartland because of the large variation in soil forms and soil types. To accommodate these differences, a case study was conducted in each of the identified sub regions of the Swartland. The information gained from each case study was presented to a panel of producers and other experts during group discussions. Technical experts ensured that the latest available technology is applied, while the producers evaluated the practical implications of this. A further outcome of this method was that specialised subject related matters could be evaluated in group discussions focussing on the implications for the farming system as a whole. Thus, aspects related to the multidisciplinary nature of farming systems could be evaluated simultaneously. It is concluded that farm profitability can, under described circumstances be improved by including more home grown feed stuffs in the fodder flow program of the dairy production system. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dalende melk- en koringpryse weens nasionale sowel as internasionale markkragte, asook die deregulering van landboubemarkingsrade in Suid-Afrika na 1994, het die winsgrense van boerderystelsels in die Swartland onder druk geplaas. Die winsgewendheid van kleingraanproduksiestelsels is veralonder druk. Dit is gevolglik nodig om kombinasies van boerderyvertakkings deurlopend te evalueer. Die winsgewendheid van veranderinge in boerderybedryfstakkombinasies kan met behulp van begrotingstegnieke bepaal word. In hierdie studie is die winsgewendheid van die inskakeling van geproduseerde voere teen 'n hoër peil in die voervloeiprogram van die melkbedryfstak, wat volgens 'n voerkraal- of nulbeweidingstelsel bedryf word, by die kleingraanproduksiestelsel ondersoek. Die tegniek van Lineêre Progammering (LP) is hiervoor gebruik. Weens groot variasies in grondvorm en grondtipe in die Swartland kan graanproduksie baie varieer. Ten einde hierdie verskille te kan akkommodeer, is 'n gevallestudie winsgewendheidsontleding in elk van die geïdentifiseerde substreke van die Swartland gedoen. Die inligting verkry uit hierdie gevallestudies is aan 'n paneel van produsente en ander kundiges tydens groepbesprekings in debat geplaas. Tegniese kundiges het verseker dat die nuutste tegnologie toegepas word, terwyl produsente die praktiese implikasies hiervan kon evalueer. 'n Verdere uitvloeisel van hierdie werkswyse is dat vakspesifieke gespesialiseerde aangeleenthede in die groepbespreking beoordeel word tesame met die implikasies wat dit vir die boerderystelsel in sy geheel inhou. Sodoende word aspekte wat verband hou met die multidissiplinêre geaardheid van boerderystelsels gelyktydig ondersoek. Daar word tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die winsgewendheid van boerderye met kombinasies van kleingraan en melk in die Swartland, onder bepaalde omstandighede, deur die gebruik van selfgeproduseerde voergrondstowwe vir die melkproduksiestelsel, aansienlik verhoog kan word.

Calcium isotope ratios (⁴⁴Ca/⁴²Ca) have shown promise as a milk dietary tracer. Previous studies have focused on bone but, due to homeostatic processes, δ^44/42Ca values are highly variable. This has greatly complicated the identification of mammal milk consumption through bone analysis, resulting in a search for an alternative. This thesis describes controlled studies to assess the effects of milk consumption on δ^44/42Ca values in bulk and sequential samples of dental enamel, using modern samples from Yorkshire, England, the Isle of Hoy, Scotland, and archaeological samples from Abu Hureyra, Syria. The samples from Yorkshire consisted of dental enamel, ewe milk, feed and bone. Dental enamel was sampled from the Hoy sheep. Milk and plants are the greatest contributors of calcium in the mammal diet. Feed and ewe milk samples confirmed that milk has lower δ^44/42Ca values than plants in the diet, and with a common diet between ewes, uniform milk δ^44/42Ca values are produced. Also, there is a significant difference between bulk molar enamel δ^44/42Ca values between males and females, with males having higher values. Additionally, analysis of bulk and sequential samples of Hoy mature sheep molar enamel, although mass fractionation effects were small, produced δ^44/42Ca values with a clear isotopic offset between the enamel likely formed during nursing, weaning and the full conversion to a plant diet. The δ^44/42Ca values, once associated with dental development chronologies, led to the identification of a clear pattern of nursing and weaning in the enamel of the first and second molars of sheep with known dietary and weaning histories. The modern results were used to identify patterns of ancient nursing and weaning. Although evidence was insufficient to establish early weaning of the Abu Hureyra sheep, this research successfully established the potential of this approach for investigating milk production and consumption in the archaeological record.

Research report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Commerce in Development Theory and Policy at The University of the Witwatersrand 2016 / This study investigates the nature of labelling and regulation in South African free-range dairy production. It aims to reveal the complexities of designing and implementing regulation on process characteristics and policy’s failure to address the heterogeneous needs of consumers and producers. In parallel, the tensions that arise in the policy-production interaction are considered. This research addresses a gap in the theoretical and industry literature regarding understanding and explaining labelling, certification and regulation of credence attributes, such as animal welfare, within food systems. It provides interesting and important insight into regulation’s role in developing alternative production structures and niche markets as a response to variety in consumers’ needs and tastes. It is therefore relevant more broadly for understanding drivers for and governance of other niche production structures such as organic, fair-trade and religious or cultural influences. / MT2017

The application of substantial quantities of phosphorus (P) has been required to increase productivity on many Australian soils. Unfortunately, these applications have often resulted in increased concentrations of P in surface runoff that contributes to excessive algal growth in surface waters and consequently a decline in their quality. The concentrations of P in runoff from intensively managed pastures are often high (1-5 mg/L) and typically at least an order of magnitude higher than water quality targets. Although a substantial amount of research has been devoted to the problem of P accumulation and mobilisation in arable systems ( in which P is typically mobilised by the action of raindrop impact and subsequently transported in particulate form ), there has been substantially less research in intensively managed pasture systems. Consequently, there is a paucity of knowledge concerning the fundamental processes and factors responsible for P in runoff from these systems and a dearth of truly effective remedial strategies. In this thesis, the accumulation of P in soil under intensively managed pastures used for dairying and the processes responsible for its mobilisation in surface runoff were investigated. This research was undertaken at two research sites in South - east Australia, i.e. Camden in New South Wales and Flaxley in South Australia. A number of factors relating to scale and hydrology may influence the processes of P mobilisation and its concentration in runoff. A comparison was made of the forms and concentrations of P in runoff between a typical rainfall simulation methodology and large runoff plots. The effect of rainfall intensity on the forms and concentrations of P was also investigated. The concentrations of P in runoff from small - scale, high - intensity rainfall simulations were on average 33 % lower than those from large plots ( approximating hillslopes ) although the processes of mobilisation ( as evidenced by runoff P forms ) were similar. Increasing rainfall intensity resulted in decreasing P concentrations, but similar forms of P. It was hypothesised that changes in hydrological characteristics ( residence time and depth of runoff ) were responsible for the differences in the P concentrations. A model of P mobilisation ( incorporating hydrological and P - release characteristics ) was developed and shown to successfully predict runoff P concentrations under a range of rainfall intensities. These findings and the subsequent model were used in the successful modelling of landscape scale nutrient exports based on rainfall simulation data as part of a separate, but complementary project. There is anecdotal evidence to suggest that Australian soils are relatively ' leaky ' in terms of P in runoff compared to soils overseas. Consequently, comparisons of the labile soil P characteristics and soil P - runoff P relationships were made between Australian soils and soils of similar fertility from the USA, UK and New Zealand ( using both experimental data and data sourced from the literature ). It was concluded that Australian soils leak more P than soils of similar fertility in the USA, UK and New Zealand, although it was beyond the scope of the thesis to make more detailed comparisons between Australian and overseas soils. The accumulation and mobilisation of P in two soils used for intensive pasture production in Australia were investigated. In intensive pasture systems P accumulated in the shallowest zones of the soil and principally as inorganic P. The concentrations of labile P were 3 - 5 times higher in the top 0.01 m than in the top 0.1 m. Using a simple model, it was estimated that only the top several mm of soil influence runoff P concentrations. The dominant form of P in runoff was shown to be orthophosphate although in low to moderate fertility soils, dissolved organic P can constitute a substantial proportion of the P in runoff. These results confirm the need to reduce the pool of P available for mobilisation in the immediate topsoil in order to reduce runoff P concentrations. Because P is stratified, it was hypothesised that one method to reduce the pool of P available for mobilisation is to de - stratify the soil ( i.e. mix the topsoil ). The effect of this technique on runoff P concentrations was investigated in laboratory and rainfall simulation experiments. These experiments revealed that reductions in runoff P concentrations between 45 and 70 % can be achieved by de - stratification of soils under permanent pastures. It was hypothesised that the benefits of de - stratification could be maximised using a combination of information relating to catchment hydrology and the spatial distribution of soil P and that this would result in large reductions in P exports with a relatively small degree of inconvenience to land managers. Given the limited opportunities identified in previous research to reduce P exports in runoff, the strategic utilisation of de - stratification is a potentially important option in water quality management for the dairy industry and warrants further investigation. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2006.

Typescript (photocopy) By using a regression equation relating the difference between dye binding and Kjeldahl values with the total protein concentration of the milk, the accuracy of estimates of casein in milk from individual cows was improved.

A constructed wetland receiving pasture runoff from a dairy in Tillamook, OR was monitored during the winter of 1997-98 in order to estimate coliform treatment efficiency during winter high flow periods. Monitoring occurred during four sampling periods, each lasting 2 to 4 days. Samples were taken every two hours from the inlet and outlet of each of two parallel wetland cells and analyzed for fecal coliform using the standard membrane filtration technique. Flow into the wetland cells was measured using a chart recorder. Dye tests were conducted for each cell during each sampling period in order to estimate residence time, active cell volume, and qualitatively evaluate the flow regime. Removal was calculated by comparing inlet samples with outlet samples offset by the residence time. This residence time offset method was an attempt to compensate for the changing flows and loads common to storm driven non-point pollution sources. Coliform concentrations and flow rates of the dairy pasture runoff varied widely. Concentrations ranged from 10�� cfu/100mL to more than 10��� cfu/100mL. The highest concentrations typically coincided with the first storm flow peak following manure application. The constructed wetland in this study was able to reduce coliform concentrations in dairy pasture runoff by more than an order of magnitude (98%) during winter storm events. Removals observed during a lower flow period in the fall were significantly lower (78%). A statistical examination of literature data in an attempt to determine the influence of commonly reported parameters on coliform removal had mixed results. Regression modeling suggested that the parameters that most influence coliform removal in wetlands are hydraulic overflow rate (HOR) and inlet coliform concentration. The importance of HOR would appear to suggest that an area-dependent process, such as settling, is the dominant removal mechanism in most wetlands. However, since most wetlands have some form of pretreatment to remove settleable material, it is unlikely that coliform is significantly removed by settling. A theortical examination of coliform removal mechanisms in constructed wetlands suggests that filtration, die-off, and solar ultraviolet disinfection are more likely removal processes. / Graduation date: 1999

The impacts of tariffication on Canadian milk producers were estimated via supply, price and trade flow parameters using a spatial price equilibrium model applied to milk production regions of Canada and the United States. / Two price scenarios were put forward because of supply management in Canada. The first incorporated producer prices while the second used shadow prices for Canadian producers, defined as the producer price less a reduction in price which accounts for the value of production quota. The hypothesis that tariffication reduces milk production in Canada to the extent that U.S. producers increase their exports to Canada was partly supported in scenario one but not in scenario two. Specific tariffs of $11.00/hl prevented U.S. imports to reach Qu 'ebec and Ontario. However, the rest of Canada increased its imports from Great Lakes to the detriment of Quebec and Ontario. Consequently, production decreased slightly in Qu 'ebec and increased in Ontario, whereas prices decreased significantly in both provinces. Scenario two showed ability of Qu 'ebec and Ontario to withstand American competition. Prices and production level remained unchanged while export flows to the rest of Canada increased to the detriment of the Great Lakes. / The present study investigated only a specific aspect of the tariffication proposal in the GATT and does not intend not to reflect the very complex aspects of GATT negotiations. The findings of this analysis must be interpreted with this caveat. Further studies considering other plausible tariffication scenarios or effective tariffs on an individual dairy product basis would broaden our understanding of the potential implications of tariffication.